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‘Panda engagement’ in China’s digital public diplomacy

ABSTRACT

ABSTRACT

Applying a constructive journalistic paradigm, we examined how the Chinese media digitalized panda diplomacy on Twitter. By analyzing English-language, panda-themed tweets (N = 855) posted by Chinese state-owned media (Xinhua News Agency, People’s Daily, and CGTN) in 2017, we identified content types and communication engagement practices that contributed to Chinese digital diplomacy. Our findings confirm that the practice of panda engagement online is highly politicized in the context of China’s public diplomacy. Chinese media outlets use Twitter (a) to spread official discourse and views in the diplomatic arena to strengthen the government’s impact and (b) to accrue sympathy capital and increase attractiveness through strategic placement of imagery (e.g. static images, moving gifs, and video clips) and textual narrative.

Introduction

‘Going out, going global’ (zou chu qu) represents not only a large-scale economic expansion strategy that China launched at the end of the twentieth century but also the beginning of a public diplomacy initiative via state-owned Chinese media outlets. In 2011, the Chinese government launched a $7 billion plan to establish a global media presence to wield its soft power around the globe (Zhang, Wasserman, & Mano, 2016, Wasserman, H., & Mano, W. (Eds.). (2016). China’s media and soft power in Africa: Promotion and perceptions. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. [Crossref][Google Scholar]). When the Communist Party of China (CPC) began using state-owned media outlets to build a peaceful national image (Thussu, 2016Thussu, D. (2016). The scramble for Asian soft power in Africa. Les Enjeux de l’information et de La Communication [Information and Communication Issues], 2(17), 225237. doi: 10.3917/enic.021.0225 [Crossref][Google Scholar]), three Chinese national media outlets – Xinhua News Agency, People’s Daily, and China Center Television (its multi-language platform known today as China Global Television Network [CGTN]) – created Twitter accounts to disseminate the government-related propaganda.

A theoretical innovation of Xi Jinping, the concept of ‘telling China’s stories well’ governs the narrative strategy at the core of China’s wai xuan (external propaganda) to ‘display a real, three-dimensional, and comprehensive China to the world’ (Huang, 2018Huang, K. (2018, August 24). Xiang shijie zhanxian zhenshi liti quanmian de Zhongguo [Show the world a true, three-dimensional, and comprehensive China]. Xinhua News Agency. Retrieved from http://politics.people.com.cn/n1/2018/0824/c1001-30247603.html [Google Scholar], title). According to Xi (2013Xi, J. (2013, August 20). Xi Jinping: Yishixingtai gongzuo shidang de yixiang jiduan zhongyao de gongzuo [Xi Jinping: Ideological work is an extremely important task of the Party]. Xinhua News Agency. Retrieved from http://www.xinhuanet.com//politics/2013-08/20/c_117021464.htm [Google Scholar]), to promote China, wai xuan needs to innovate ‘new concepts, new categories, and new expressions that could be accepted by both China and foreign states’ in the digital era (p. 2). Chinese scholars have interpreted this statement as the need to strengthen two-way communication and interaction in public diplomacy in order to engage target publics (Chen, 2015Chen, F. (2015). Practical research on the diplomatic activities of Chinese media in the new media age. In Q. Zhao & W. Lei (Eds.), Blue book of public diplomacy: Annual report of China’s public diplomacy development (2015) (pp. 237249). Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press. [Google Scholar]).

This communication goal resembles the slogan of CGTN: ‘see the difference.’ Chinese media are constantly looking for ways to soften China’s national image as a rising global power. The most archetypal example is the combination of traditional panda diplomacy, social media, and strategic expression in daily posts on Twitter. The aim is to attract online comments, retweets, and followers, to engage foreign publics, and to promote a peaceful and friendly national image (Yang & Xu, 2018Yang, H., & Xu, C. (2018). Research on iPanda channel international communication strategy. TV Research (China), 6, 8285. [Google Scholar]).

In the current study, we examined how Chinese state-owned media have mobilized Twitter to generate strategic narratives related to the panda. In particular, we examined how Chinese media use constructive journalism to tell stories on Twitter. By analyzing panda-themed tweets collected from the Twitter accounts of three Chinese stated-owned media outlets in 2017, we developed a narrative typology to shed light on China’s communication engagement strategies for digital public diplomacy.

Literature review

As a government-based communicative behavior on the international scene and a process for framing national thinking, public diplomacy is typically understood as direct communication between a state and foreign public (Malone, 1985Malone, G. D. (1985). Managing public diplomacy. The Washington Quarterly, 8(3), 199213. doi: 10.1080/01636608509450301 [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar]). The objective of public diplomacy is to influence ‘well-connected individuals and organizations that are capable of impacting upon a foreign government’s policy choices’ (Pamment, 2015Pamment, J. (2015). Media influence, ontological transformation, and social change: Conceptual overlaps between development communication and public diplomacy. Communication Theory, 25(2), 188207. doi: 10.1111/comt.12064 [Crossref], [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar], p. 190).

Often disseminated through large-scale communication platforms (e.g. international broadcasting), public diplomacy has long been regarded as synonymous with propaganda (Vlahos, 2009Vlahos, M. (2009). Public diplomacy as loss of world authority. In N. Snow, & P. M. Taylor (Eds.), Routledge handbook of public diplomacy (pp. 2438). New York, NY: Routledge. [Google Scholar]), enabling a state to win the battle for foreign hearts and minds (Gilboa, 2000Gilboa, E. (2000). Mass communication and diplomacy: A theoretical framework. Communication Theory, 10(3), 275309. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2885.2000.tb00193.x [Crossref], [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar]). Nye (2004Nye, J. S. (2004). Soft power: The means to success in world politics (1st ed.). New York, NY: Public Affairs. [Crossref][Google Scholar]) introduced the concept of soft power in international studies: the influence and attractiveness of a state through its values and ideals. Based on this approach, public diplomacy is no longer a practice confined to state officials but enters the domain of non-governmental organizations, institutions, and individuals whose purpose is to ‘understand cultures, attitudes, and behavior; build and manage relationships; and influence opinions and actions to advance their interests and values’ (Gregory, 2008Gregory, B. (2008). Public diplomacy: Sunrise of an academic field. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 616(1), 274290. doi: 10.1177/0002716207311723 [Crossref], [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar], p. 276).

Three public diplomacy dimensions fall under the soft power framework: (a) day-to-day communication to explain policies; (b) strategic communication using political advertising, rhetoric, and narrative to strengthen impact; and (c) long-term relationship building with target individuals that sustain interaction and engagement (Nye, 2004Nye, J. S. (2004). Soft power: The means to success in world politics (1st ed.). New York, NY: Public Affairs. [Crossref][Google Scholar]). We mobilized this framework to examine the use of panda imagery as a communication strategy for public diplomacy in China, addressing three questions: (a) Is China’s public diplomacy in line with wai xuan? (b) To what extent does China digitalize animal diplomacy in public diplomacy use? and (c) How do Chinese media outlets tell stories that enhance communication engagement and attractiveness?

China’s public diplomacy and wai xuan

Public diplomacy first became part of CPC doctrine in 2012 as a means to wield China’s soft power and to promote a vision of a harmonious world (Hu, 2012Hu, J. (2012). Firmly march on the path of socialism with Chinese characteristics and strive to complete the building of a moderately prosperous society in all respects (Report to the Eighteenth National Congress of the Communist Party of China on Nov 8, 2012). Beijing. Retrieved from http://language.chinadaily.com.cn/news/2012-11/19/content_15941774_12.htm [Google Scholar]). The acceleration of China’s public diplomacy is inseparable from its development of soft power. Chinese political theorists have refined Nye’s concept of soft power using ‘Chinese characteristics.’ In other words, Beijing’s definition of soft power has wider signification than Nye (2004Nye, J. S. (2004). Soft power: The means to success in world politics (1st ed.). New York, NY: Public Affairs. [Crossref][Google Scholar]), who focused on the ‘ability to shape the preferences of others’ (p. 6). China’s soft power includes non-state organizations and individuals as practitioners and widens the scope of ‘soft power’ to encompass the nation’s traditional culture, long history, education, economic development, technological and multi-industrial cooperation, and creation of ‘international friends circle’ (guoji pengyouquan: a Chinese political term, used by Xi Jinping, that means ‘international network of relationships’) (cf. Lai & Lu, 2012Lai, H., & Lu, Y. (Eds.). (2012). China’s soft power and international relations (1st ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. [Crossref][Google Scholar]; Xi, 2018Xi, J. (2018, September 29). Xi Jinping attended the National Conference on Propaganda and Ideological Work and delivered an important speech. The State Council of the PRC. Retrieved from http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2018-08/22/content_5315723.htm [Google Scholar]). This redefinition reflects the change in the CPC’s international relations effort from ‘the united front strategy, the leaning-to-one-side policy, and the three-world theory’ of Mao’s era (Qin, 2011Qin, Y. (2011). Development of international relations theory in China: Progress through debates. International Relations of the Asia-Pacific, 11(2), 231257. doi: 10.1093/irap/lcr003 [Crossref], [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar], p. 233) to an intention to ‘deepen the overall diplomatic layout and expand the global partnership network’ (Xi, 2017bXi, J. (2017b, December 28). Xi Jinping jiejian 2017 niandu zhuwai shijie gongzuo huiyi yuhui shijie bing fabiao zhongyao jianghua [Xi Jinping met with the 2017 diplomatic mission work meeting and the festival and delivered an important speech]. Xinhua. Retrieved from http://www.xinhuanet.com/politics/leaders/2017-12/28/c_1122181743.htm [Google Scholar], para. 6).

Soft power, in the eyes of CPC decision makers, is a multifaceted instrument. It can influence the elites of target states and both seduce and convince the general public. Public diplomacy is an essential tool for wielding China’s charm and soft power around the globe (Kurlantzick, 2007Kurlantzick, J. (2007). Charm offensive: How China’s soft power is transforming the world. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. [Google Scholar]). In terms of practice, ‘whether a power is soft or hard depends on the feelings and perceptions of various actors in specific situations’ (Zheng & Zhang, 2012Zheng, Y., & Zhang, C. (2012). “Soft power” and Chinese soft power. In H. Lai & Y. Lu (Eds.), China’s soft power and international relations (pp. 2138). London: Routledge. [Google Scholar], p. 21). In this way, the soft use of power is essential to the national image that China aims to project (Li, 2009Li, M. (2009). Soft power: China’s emerging strategy in international politics. Plymouth: Lexington Books. [Google Scholar]). Using various public diplomacy tools, the Chinese government means to transmit its culture, ideas, and policies effectively around the globe.

In addition to following media campaign logic (Zhao, 2019Zhao, K. (2019). The China model of public diplomacy and its future. The Hague Journal of Diplomacy, 14(1–2), 169181. doi: 10.1163/1871191X-14101033 [Crossref], [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar]), China’s public diplomacy is also translated by the term of ‘wai xuan’ in political context. Both notions are instruments for building and promoting, within the framework of soft power, a favorable Chinese national image in the eyes of foreign states (Huang & Arifon, 2018Huang, Z. A., & Arifon, O. (2018). Chinese public diplomacy on Twitter: Creating a harmonious polyphony. Hermès La Revue, 81, 4553. [Google Scholar], p. 45). The literal translation of wai xuan is ‘external propaganda,’ which refers to the mind control, manipulation, or denigration of foreign publics through falsification, deception, and misinformation (Jowett & O’Donnell, 2012Jowett, G., & O’Donnell, V. (2012). Propaganda & persuasion (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. [Google Scholar]). In 2004, being clearly aware of the ideology and totalitarian connotation of wai xuan, Beijing rebranded the term in English – and only in English – to mean publicity (Kurlantzick, 2007Kurlantzick, J. (2007). Charm offensive: How China’s soft power is transforming the world. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. [Google Scholar]).

According to Chinese scholars, wai xuan refers to government-organized and government-led international political communication or public relations practices that promote favorable images of China around the globe (cf. Chen & Liu, 2015Chen, X., & Liu, X. (2015). Hexin jiazhiguan chuanbo de guojia gonggong guanxi zhanlüe gouxiang [Strategic conception of national public relations for spreading Chinese core values]. Modern Communication, 6(227), 2531. [Google Scholar]; Zhou, 2018Zhou, Q. (2018). Chaoyue youxing jiangjie: Quanqiu chuanbo zhong de gonggong waijiao [Beyond visible border: Public diplomacy in global communication]. Beijing: Communication University of China Press. [Google Scholar]). As a ubiquitous global communication practice of public diplomacy, wai xuan contributes to China’s international image and reputation building, cultural promotion, and political advocacy (Zhou, 2018Zhou, Q. (2018). Chaoyue youxing jiangjie: Quanqiu chuanbo zhong de gonggong waijiao [Beyond visible border: Public diplomacy in global communication]. Beijing: Communication University of China Press. [Google Scholar]). In this context, Yang Jiechi, former Foreign Minister and CPC theorist defined public diplomacy as a communication activity that creates and manages a favorable foreign public opinion environment:

[It] is led by the government. Through various means of communication, it introduces national conditions and policy ideas to foreign publics and presents domestic foreign policy and related measures to citizens. It aims to gain the understanding, recognition, and support of both domestic and foreign publics, to establish a good national image and perception, and to safeguard and promote the fundamental interests of the state. (2011Yang, J. (2011). Nuli kaichuang zhongguo tese gonggong waijiao xinjumian [Strive to open up a new situation of public diplomacy with Chinese characteristics]. Qiushi Theory, 4. Retrieved from http://www.qstheory.cn/zxdk/2011/201104/201102/t20110214_67907.htm [Google Scholar], para. 2–3)

China’s panda public diplomacy

Many states regard animal diplomacy as an effective way to maintain international relations. Its earliest practice dates back to the exchange of animal tributes for diplomatic purposes between different states in ancient Egypt (Cushing & Markwell, 2009Cushing, N., & Markwell, K. (2009). Platypus diplomacy : Animal gifts in international relations. Journal of Australian Studies, 33(3), 255271. doi: 10.1080/14443050903079664 [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar]). The longevity of this para-diplomatic practice underscores its purpose of attracting foreign publics. Today, public diplomats use animals for similar ends: to attract a large number of target publics by using images of cute or adorable animals and to project, directly or indirectly, a peaceful, soft, or attractive impression of a state. Key factors in the success of animal diplomacy include the unique geographic environment of the animal, visual recognition of the animal, and the particular techniques that a state uses to introduce the animal to foreign publics (cf. Hartig, 2013Hartig, F. (2013). Panda diplomacy: The cutest part of China’s public diplomacy. The Hague Journal of Diplomacy, 8(1), 4978. doi: 10.1163/1871191X-12341245 [Crossref][Google Scholar]; Xing, 2010Xing, Y. (2010). China’s panda diplomacy: The power of being cute. Los Angeles, CA: University of Southern California. [Google Scholar]). However, visual recognition is the most important factor: the more attractive the animal, the more likely public exposure is to arouse a favorable response.

Previous research confirms that the image of the panda – ‘a round, rather fat face, large black eye patches, and a cuddly and clumsy appearance’ (Schaller, 1994Schaller, G. B. (1994). The last panda. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. [Google Scholar], p. xvi) – aligns with the schema of childlike characteristics (Hartig, 2013Hartig, F. (2013). Panda diplomacy: The cutest part of China’s public diplomacy. The Hague Journal of Diplomacy, 8(1), 4978. doi: 10.1163/1871191X-12341245 [Crossref][Google Scholar]; Huang & Wang, 2019bHuang, Z. A., & Wang, R. (2019b). The new “cat” of the Internet: China’s panda diplomacy on Twitter. In F. Frandsen, W. Johansen, R. Tench, & S. Romenti (Eds.), Big ideas in public relations research and practice (pp. 6985). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing. [Crossref][Google Scholar]). The image and behavior of pandas not only ‘influence people’s willingness to engage in caregiving behaviors but also influence the ability of people to do so’ (Sherman, Haidt, & Coan, 2009Sherman, G. D., Haidt, J., & Coan, J. A. (2009). Viewing cute images increases behavioral carefulness. Emotion, 9(2), 282286. doi: 10.1037/a0014904 [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar], p. 285). As a result, observing the various cute behaviors of pandas triggers the ‘innate release mechanism’ of emotion and parenting instincts of the viewer, leading them to feel tenderness and the desire to take care of them (Gould, 1979Gould, S. J. (1979). Mickey Mouse meets Konrad Lorenz. Natural History, 88(5), 3036. [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar], p. 34).

Since the 1950s, the CPC government has sent three giant pandas – Ping-Ping, Chi-Chi, and An-An – out of the state to charm foreign governments and improve the national image of China during the Cold War. Giving the panda a clear political meaning, Beijing presented one to the Soviet Union in 1957 to symbolize their socialist brotherhood and sent two more to the United States after Richard Nixon’s 1972 visit to China. To this day, Beijing ‘continues to benefit from the careful deployment of captive pandas for explicitly political purposes’ (Nicholls, 2011Nicholls, H. (2011). The way of the panda: The curious history of China’s political animal. New York, NY: Pegasus. [Google Scholar], p. 151). The panda is not only a national treasure for Chinese citizens but also a ‘treasure’ for enhancing international perception, giving the state a soft and peaceful image of a rising global power (cf. Yang & Xu, 2018Yang, H., & Xu, C. (2018). Research on iPanda channel international communication strategy. TV Research (China), 6, 8285. [Google Scholar]; Yoo, 2010Yoo, M. (2010). Three case studies on China’s public diplomacy to the United States: Panda, Confucius institute and the first emperor of Qin. Public Diplomacy Quarterly (China), 2, 7481. [Google Scholar]).

Social media platforms have ushered in a new way to position and to deploy panda diplomacy: digitalized imagery. Projecting pictures and videos of pandas on social media has become an innovative way to promote a soft national image, for ‘the universal image of the panda has helped Beijing bridge linguistic, political, ideological and cultural gaps in its international communication’ (Huang & Wang, 2019bHuang, Z. A., & Wang, R. (2019b). The new “cat” of the Internet: China’s panda diplomacy on Twitter. In F. Frandsen, W. Johansen, R. Tench, & S. Romenti (Eds.), Big ideas in public relations research and practice (pp. 6985). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing. [Crossref][Google Scholar], p. 80).

Although Beijing’s digital public diplomacy is in its early stages (Chen, 2015Chen, F. (2015). Practical research on the diplomatic activities of Chinese media in the new media age. In Q. Zhao & W. Lei (Eds.), Blue book of public diplomacy: Annual report of China’s public diplomacy development (2015) (pp. 237249). Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press. [Google Scholar]), the intention to change negative views of state-owned media borders on ‘pure propaganda’ (Kurlantzick, 2007Kurlantzick, J. (2007). Charm offensive: How China’s soft power is transforming the world. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. [Google Scholar], p. 61). Through a cooperative effort, Chinese state media and the Chengdu Giant Panda Breeding Research Base have used constructive journalism to disseminate panda imagery via social media, creating a strategic narrative that attracts the attention of foreign publics.

China’s engagement in digital public diplomacy

Public diplomacy is primarily a tool for persuading publics that a nation promotes values, goals, and desires that those publics share (van Ham, 2008van Ham, P. (2008). Power, public diplomacy, and the Pax Americana. In J. Melissen (Ed.), The New public diplomacy: Soft power in international relations (pp. 4666). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. [Google Scholar]). This communication process uses shared value narratives and emotional appeals to ‘understand, inform, engage, and influence people’ (Djerejian, 2003Djerejian, E. P. (2003). Changing minds, winning peace (Report of the Advisory Group on Public Diplomacy for the Arab and Muslim World). US State Department. [Google Scholar], p. 5). From a psychological perspective, engagement is ‘a dynamic multidimensional relational concept […] designed to achieve or elicit an outcome at individual, organization, or social levels’ (Johnston & Taylor, 2018Johnston, K. A., & Taylor, M. (2018). The handbook of communication engagement (1st ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. [Crossref][Google Scholar], p. 18). Engagement in social media can lead to interaction between stakeholders and target publics (Adams & McCorkindale, 2013Adams, A., & McCorkindale, T. (2013). Dialogue and transparency: A content analysis of how the 2012 presidential candidates used twitter. Public Relations Review, 39(4), 357359. doi: 10.1016/j.pubrev.2013.07.016 [Crossref], [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar]). Social media also allow stakeholders to pursue more effective interactions and richer relationships with individuals (Men & Tsai, 2012Men, L. R., & Tsai, W.-H. S. (2012). How companies cultivate relationships with publics on social network sites: Evidence from China and the United States. Public Relations Review, 38(5), 723730. doi: 10.1016/j.pubrev.2011.10.006 [Crossref], [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar]). Indeed, as a synonym of connection, interaction, participation and involvement, engagement positions the ‘state at the individual level’ (Johnston & Taylor, 2018Johnston, K. A., & Taylor, M. (2018). The handbook of communication engagement (1st ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. [Crossref][Google Scholar], p. 4).

Engagement has affective, cognitive, and behavioral dimensions (Chen, 2018Chen, Y. R. (2018). Consumer engagement in social media in China. In K. A. Johnston & M. Taylor (Eds.), The handbook of communication engagement (pp. 475490). Medford, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. [Crossref][Google Scholar]). Affective engagement involves human emotional reactions, positive or negative (e.g. happiness, fear, anger, encouragement, and loyalty). Affective engagement leads to a sense of belonging and appreciation (Finn, 1989Finn, J. D. (1989). Withdrawing from school. Review of Educational Research, 59(2), 117142. doi: 10.3102/00346543059002117 [Crossref], [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar]), reflecting the intrinsic seductive, persuasive, or repulsive power of content relative to the purpose, motivation, and interest of the recipients. Cognitive engagement focuses on psychological investment in self-training and learning, ‘a desire to go beyond the requirements, and a preference for challenge’ (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 59109. doi: 10.3102/00346543074001059 [Crossref], [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar], p. 63). It is a personal investment in attention and processing to build knowledge about or comprehension of a topic (Johnston, 2018Johnston, K. A. (2018). Toward a theory of social engagement. In K. A. Johnston & M. Taylor (Eds.), The handbook of communication engagement (pp. 1932). Medford, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. [Crossref][Google Scholar]). Behavioral engagement in communication relates to individual action, reaction, and participation, including ones caused or generated by cognitive or affective engagement (Johnston & Taylor, 2018Johnston, K. A., & Taylor, M. (2018). The handbook of communication engagement (1st ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. [Crossref][Google Scholar]).

Grand narrative, a tool used in communication engagement, ‘tries to give a totalizing, comprehensive account to various historical events, experiences, and social, cultural phenomena based upon the appeal to universal truth or universal values’ (Chandler & Munday, 2011Chandler, D., & Munday, R. (2011). A dictionary of media and communication (1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. [Crossref][Google Scholar], p. 178). As instruments of storytelling, narratives can disseminate knowledge (Lyotard, 1984Lyotard, J.-F. (1984). The postmodern condition: A report on knowledge. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. [Crossref][Google Scholar]). With the capacity to affect and engage publics, narrative can facilitate a primary goal of public diplomacy: strengthen the charm and persuasive effect of a state’s soft power (Duncombe, 2019Duncombe, C. (2019). Digital diplomacy : Emotion and identity in the public realm. The Hague Journal of Diplomacy, 14, 102116. doi: 10.1163/1871191X-14101016 [Crossref], [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar]). In this way, effective narrative tactics make a communication campaign successful (Kim, 2015Kim, K. E. (2015). Framing as a strategic persuasive message tactic. In D. Holtzhausen & A. Zerfass (Eds.), The routledge handbook of strategic communication (pp. 285302). New York, NY: Routledge. [Google Scholar], p. 285).

Furthermore, China’s online public diplomacy aligns with the government’s pursuit of ‘innovation and improvement of online propaganda’ to ‘guide public opinion on the Internet’ (Xi, 2014Xi, J. (2014, February 27). Xi Jinping zhuchi zhaokai zhongyang wangluo anquan he xinxi hua lingdao xiaozu diyici huiyi [Xi Jinping presided over the first meeting of the Central Network Security and Informatization Leading Group]. Xinhua. Retrieved from http://cpc.people.com.cn/n/2014/0227/c64094-24486402.html [Google Scholar], para. 6). On the one hand, the Chinese government minimizes negative emotional content via censorship (Roberts, 2018Roberts, M. E. (2018). Censored: Distraction and diversion inside China’s great firewall. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. [Google Scholar]). On the other hand, Chinese state-owned media have moved from a ‘rigid propagandistic writing style to a much more energetic and literary form of expression’ to ‘make people sympathetic to the Party’s agenda’ (Li, 2015Li, A. K. (2015). Towards a more proactive method: Regulating public opinion on Chinese microblogs under Xi’s new leadership. China Perspectives, 2015(4), 1523. doi: 10.4000/chinaperspectives.6840 [Crossref][Google Scholar], p. 19, 21).

By progressively accepting the ‘constructive journalism’ paradigm in news stories editing (Zhao & Xiang, 2019Zhao, X., & Xiang, Y. (2019). Does China’s outward focused journalism engage a constructive approach? A qualitative content analysis of Xinhua News Agency’s English News. Asian Journal of Communication, 29(4), 346362. doi: 10.1080/01292986.2019.1606263 [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar]), Chinese media intend to replace ‘positive reporting’ and relax their ideological orientation. Constructive journalism is a solution-based journalistic practice that brings positive content into conventional news writing, namely ‘positive emotion, engagement, relationship, meaning, and accomplishment’ (Zhang & Matingwina, 2016Zhang, Y., & Matingwina, S. (2016). Constructive journalism: A new journalistic paradigm of Chinese media in Africa. In X. Zhang, H. Wasserman, & W. Mano (Eds.), China’s media and soft power in Africa (pp. 93105). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. [Google Scholar], p. 96). It incorporates ‘positive psychology’ while striving to maintain the accuracy of conventional reporting. It seeks to evoke positive emotions from publics through engaging narrative (Mclntyre & Gyldensted, 2017Mclntyre, K., & Gyldensted, C. (2017). Constructive journalism: Applying positive psychology techniques to news production. The Journal of Media Innovations, 4(2), 2034. doi: 10.5617/jomi.v4i2.2403 [Crossref][Google Scholar]). Positive emotions facilitate approach behavior, broaden the mind, and help build enduring personal resources that might be used later (Fredrickson, 2001Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The American Psychologist, 56(3), 218226. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar]). Interest, for example, broadens through the urge to focus on, ‘explore, and take in new information and experiences’ (Fredrickson, 2001Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology. The American Psychologist, 56(3), 218226. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218 [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar], p. 3); joy expands through the urge to participate, push the limits, and be creative (Fredrickson, 1998Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 300319. doi: 10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.300 [Crossref], [PubMed][Google Scholar]). Narrative reporting that incorporates positive emotions creates a more engaging and empowering way to circulate information and interact with potential publics (Dagan Wood, 2014Dagan Wood, S. (2014, September 15). The positive future of journalism. TEDx Talks. YouTube. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zPy0xnymGR0 [Google Scholar]).

Through this journalistic practice, Chinese state-owned media deliver positive emotions by shaping narratives for the soft use of public diplomacy on Twitter. By posting panda-themed tweets, including static images, moving gifs, and video clips, the Chinese government attempts to wield soft power and ‘shape perceived interests’ of target publics (Roselle, Miskimmon, & O’Loughlin, 2014Roselle, L., Miskimmon, A., & O’Loughlin, B. (2014). Strategic narrative: A new means to understand soft power. Media, War & Conflict, 7(1), 7084. doi: 10.1177/1750635213516696 [Crossref][Google Scholar], p. 76). This strategy permits a triangular communication engagement that links target publics, Twitter content, and national image (Chan-Olmsted & Wolter, 2017Chan-Olmsted, S., & Wolter, L.-C. (2017). Toward a multidimensional framework of media engagement: Conceptualizing consumer experience and connection with media content in a digital environment. Emma conference 2017. Retrieved from https://www.media-management.eu/ocs/index.php/emma/emma2017/paper/view/585 [Google Scholar]). Therefore, we raise two research questions:

RQ1: In the constructive journalism paradigm, what types of content do panda-themed tweets contain?

RQ2: What specific strategies and methods do Chinese media use to display panda imagery for digital diplomacy?

Method

Data collection

For this study, we collected Twitter data via Crimson Hexagon (CH), a social media analysis tool that gives users access to the full Twitter firehose (Breese, 2016Breese, E. B. (2016). When marketers and academics share a research platform: The story of Crimson Hexagon. Journal of Applied Social Science, 10(1), 37. doi: 10.1177/1936724415569953 [Crossref][Google Scholar]). It allows users to set Twitter Social Account Monitors to track key metrics for any Twitter handle. Researchers can retrieve historical data back to December 2013 and download all tweets of the monitored account, along with metrics such as the time each tweet was created, how many times it was retweeted, and how many replies it received (Crimson Hexagon, 2018Crimson Hexagon. (2018). Social account monitor: Twitter. Retrieved from https://help.crimsonhexagon.com/hc/en-us/articles/203627125-Social-Account-Monitor-Twitter [Google Scholar]).

In order to collect all panda-themed tweets, we set three Twitter account monitors to observe three Chinese state-owned media outlets that publish in English: People’s Daily (@PDChina), Xinhua News Agency (@XHNews), and China Global Television Network (CGTN) (@CGTNOfficial). First, we downloaded all tweets posted by these three accounts from 1 January 2017 to 31 December 2017. Next, we used the IF, ISNUMBER, and SEARCH functions in Microsoft Excel to check whether part of any tweet matched the string ‘panda’; this method yielded 911 tweets containing text such as ‘panda,’ ‘pandas,’ ‘giant panda,’ ‘#giantpanda,’ and ‘#pandamania.’

Coding process

To investigate how Chinese state-owned media outlets used panda-themed tweets to attract and engage online publics, we coded each tweet by text modality, engagement type, and panda-themed content type. We used a content analysis method combining emergent thematic coding (Stemler, 2001Stemler, S. (2001). An overview of content analysis. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 7, 17. [Google Scholar]) and grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 2009Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (2009). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. New Brunswick: Aldine. [Google Scholar]). We coded, classified, and reviewed the acquired textual and visual data (with URL) instead of relying on previous studies:

  • Text modality included the following six categories: (a) text + static image, (b) text + moving gif, (c) text + video clip, (d) text only, (e) text + live video, and (f) other.

  • Engagement type, applied to text and imagery, included the following eight categories: (a) rational, (b) emotional, (c) behavioral, (d) rational and behavioral, (e) rational and emotional, (f) emotional and behavioral, (g) all, and (h) other.

  • Panda-themed content type included the following six categories: (a) to entertain, (b) to promote Chinese culture, attractions, or products, (c) to improve Sino-foreign relations, (d) to educate, (e) to show China’s sense of international responsibility, and (f) other.

We coded 165 tweets together to build the categories, checking and improving the codebook along the way. Then we each coded 200 tweets independently to verify intercoder reliability. We used ReCal2 to assess intercoder reliability (Freelon, 2010Freelon, D. G. (2010). Recal: Intercoder reliability calculation as a web service. International Journal of Internet Science, 5(1), 2033. [Google Scholar]). Krippendorff’s Alpha for the three variables were .98 (text modality), .74 (engagement type11 We take care to report our findings related to engagement type because intercoder reliability for engagement type was not high (Krippendorff’s Alpha, .74).View all notes), and .80 (panda-themed content type). Then we each coded 273 tweets separately.

During the coding process, we removed 12 irrelevant tweets (e.g. mentions of ‘red panda’ or ‘panda blood’). In addition, 44 tweets had been deleted by their account holders. A total of 855 tweets comprised the final dataset for analysis. In addition to quantitative analysis, we qualitatively examined the narratives and imagery related to pandas.

Findings

Statistical results

The results of our analysis show that tweets ‘to improve Sino-foreign relations’ were most frequent (n = 253), followed by ‘to entertain’ (n = 251), ‘to promote Chinese culture, attractions, or products’ (n = 125), and ‘to educate’ (n = 115) (see Table 1).

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Table 1. Panda-themed content types.

As shown in Table 2, more than half of the panda-themed tweets used emotional engagement (n = 455, 53.2%). About 20% used both rational and emotional engagement (n = 164, 19.2%). However, tweets using behavioral engagement were much less frequent.

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Table 2. Engagement type of panda-themed tweets.

As displayed in Table 3, Chinese media primarily used two text modalities in panda-themed tweets: ‘text + static image’ and ‘text + video clip.’ Tweets including static images or video accounted for more than 90% of all tweets. Tweets featuring only text, however, were the least common.

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Table 3. Text modality of panda-themed tweets.

We conducted a series of one-way ANOVA to identify relationships among text modality and communication effect. We reviewed and compared the text modality of each tweet, its number of likes, its number of retweets, and its number of replies (see Table 4). First, a significant effect of text modality on number of likes emerged (F(4, 850) = 8.05, p < .001). A Tukey post-hoc test revealed that tweets containing live video (M = 407.27, SD = 326.42) received significantly more likes than tweets containing static images (M = 170.84, SD = 189.95, p = .023).

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Table 4. Main effects of text modality.

In addition, a significant effect of text modality on number of replies emerged (F(4, 850) = 18.98, p < .001). A Tukey post-hoc test revealed that tweets containing live video (M = 22.23, SD = 12.95) received significantly more replies than tweets containing static images (M = 7.44, SD = 6.57, p = .000), moving gifs (M = 12, SD = 7.40, p = .001), video clips (M = 11.14, SD = 11.01, p = .000), or text only (M = 8.37, SD = 13.48, p = .000). However, we found no significant effect of text modality on number of retweets.

China’s panda engagement strategy in digital public diplomacy

We investigated how Chinese state-owned media outlets used panda-themed tweets to engage online publics, and then we described the characteristics of those tweets based on the paradigm of constructive journalism. We conducted a chi-square test of independence to compare the frequency of engagement types used with different content types. A significant interaction emerged (χ2 (35) = 499.76, p < .001). As illustrated in Figure 1, emotional engagement was most often used in tweets ‘to entertain,’ ‘to promote Chinese culture, attractions, or products,’ and ‘to improve Sino-foreign relations.’ In the tweets ‘to educate’ and ‘to show China’s sense of international responsibility,’ both rational and emotional engagement were present.

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Figure 1. Interactions between content type and engagement type.

Figure 1. Interactions between content type and engagement type.

We conducted another chi-square test of independence to discover the relationship between text modality and content type. A significant interaction emerged (χ2 (20) = 288.60, p < .001). As Figure 2 illustrates, the modality of ‘text + video clip’ was most common in tweets ‘to entertain’ (i.e. for attracting and interacting with online publics), while ‘text + static image’ was common in tweets ‘to promote Chinese culture, attractions, or products’ and ‘to improve Sino-foreign relations.’

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Figure 2. Interactions between content type and text modality.

Figure 2. Interactions between content type and text modality.

In addition, we conducted a layered crosstab test to explore the interaction between engagement type and text modality within each panda-themed content type.

  • to entertain

Chinese media exerted positive emotional influence by tweeting fun and cute panda imagery in the form of moving gifs and video clips. These adorable and amusing images of panda behavior attracted and engaged target publics on Twitter, increasing the vividness of online interaction. As the most important dimension of interactivity, vividness through narrative text, images, and video can boost user interaction with content (Chung & Zhao, 2004Chung, H., & Zhao, X. (2004). Effects of perceived interactivity on web site preference and memory : role of personal motivation. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 10, 1. [Google Scholar]). Scholars have also shown that such interactive content has a stronger effect on attitude and memory (Coyle & Thorson, 2001Coyle, J. R., & Thorson, E. (2001). The effects of progressive levels of interactivity and vividness in web marketing sites. Journal of Advertising, 30(3), 6577. doi: 10.1080/00913367.2001.10673646 [Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar]).

The tweets identified as an attempt ‘to entertain’ featured numerous anthropomorphic expressions and positive emotions. Chinese journalists used ‘first-person’ expressions and ‘panda voice’ to present everyday panda behavior. This kind of expression not only entertains online publics and increases interaction but can also transfer implicit messages and ideas.

In a tweet published by People’s Daily on 15 April 2017 (see Figure 3), Chinese journalists used panda dialog to humanize their cute behavior in a video clip. In the video, the pandas’ keeper is taking pictures of the two pandas sitting together and eating bamboo. One of them suddenly moves toward keeper. The keeper then immediately shows his phone screen to the panda, who, according to the written dialog, asks, ‘how do I look? how do I look?’ In conjunction with the video clip, this tweet anthropomorphized the panda and showed a harmonious interaction between pandas and humans.

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Figure 3. Tweet published by People’s Daily on 15 April 2017.

Figure 3. Tweet published by People’s Daily on 15 April 2017.

In another tweet posted by Xinhua on 1 March 2017 (see Figure 4), a video clip shows the daily interaction between a one-and-a-half-year-old panda cub and its nanny. This panda apparently liked to hug its nanny’s leg and closely follow him. Xinhua’s reporters wrote human dialog to make the panda seem like a human child: ‘Don’t leave me alone! I just want to hug your leg.’

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Figure 4. Tweet published by Xinhua on 1 March 2017.

Figure 4. Tweet published by Xinhua on 1 March 2017.

The main purpose of publishing images of cute and clumsy panda behavior is to attract and entertain online publics. By creating anthropomorphic dialog for ‘panda speech,’ Chinese journalists humanized panda behavior. These types of panda-themed tweets continue to convey cuteness and adorability in ways that gain sympathy, attention, and participation (e.g. likes, retweets, and replies). From another point of view, the video clips and pictures in these tweets often show affectionate interaction between pandas and their keepers. Chinese media outlets also implicitly communicate a soft, attractive, friendly, and humanitarian image of China through these peaceful human-panda relationships. Therefore, tweets designed ‘to entertain’ can rhetorically support, in subtle and appealing ways, the idea of China’s peaceful rise in global power.

  • to promote Chinese culture, attractions, or products

In the digital age, influence and emotion have become important forms of profit-generating capital in the attention economy (Huang & Wang, 2019bHuang, Z. A., & Wang, R. (2019b). The new “cat” of the Internet: China’s panda diplomacy on Twitter. In F. Frandsen, W. Johansen, R. Tench, & S. Romenti (Eds.), Big ideas in public relations research and practice (pp. 6985). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing. [Crossref][Google Scholar]; Martin-Juchat, 2014Martin-Juchat, F. (2014). Le capitalisme affectif: Enjeux des pratiques de communication des organisations [Affective capitalism: Issues in the communication practices of organizations]. In S. P. Alemanno (Ed.), Communication organisationnelle, management et numérique [Organizational communication, management and digitalization] (pp. 5968). Paris: L’Harmattan. [Google Scholar]). Panda-themed tweets designed to promote China feature positive emotions and attractive panda imagery that make Chinese culture, attractions, and products more appealing. Compared with tweets meant ‘to entertain,’ promotional tweets most frequently used emotional storytelling and static images (χ2 (18) = 34.00, p < .05). Video clips were also a common text modality for branding and publicizing China.

Almost all of the panda-themed video clips came from the China Conservation and Research Center for the Giant Panda (CCRCGP). Therefore, the Chinese and English subtitles at the end of each video are attributable to CCRCGP. Chinese media outlets promoted this giant panda reserve to the world not only because it is the core department of Chinese panda conservation research but also because it is an important tourist attraction in the Sichuan Province.

In addition, panda-themed tweets promoted Chinese festivals. For example, a tweet posted by CGTN on 4 October 2017 (see Figure 5) explains the tradition of the Mid-Autumn Festival to foreign publics using panda-themed content. The text of the tweet identifies the date of the Mid-Autumn Festival and the various types of food available at the event. The three pictures posted by CGTN show a panda eating mooncake, highlighting the most important food at the festival. Additionally, these pictures show the festive atmosphere of the event: the Chinese characters ‘jia jie’ (Chinese Festival) written on the red lanterns, the Chinese characters ‘zhong qiu kuai le’ (Happy Mid-Autumn Festival) written on the panda’s mooncakes, and the happy expression on the panda keeper’s face. Furthermore, this panda-themed promotional tweet has the potential to educate publics about the various foods that pandas eat. In addition to bamboo, pandas enjoy fruits and carrots, and the mooncake is made from carrots.

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Figure 5. Tweet published by CGTN on 4 October 2017.

Figure 5. Tweet published by CGTN on 4 October 2017.

Chinese media outlets also used panda imagery to promote Chinese industrial products. For instance, a live video event released by Xinhua (see Figure 6) showed China’s standard photovoltaic industry and new energy industry to online publics. In a live video lasting 36 minutes and 26 seconds, Chinese reporters introduced a Chinese solar panel facility built in the shape of a panda. This panda-shaped edifice is reputed to be the ‘world’s most adorable’ environmental protection facility. By interviewing industrial employees and engineers, Xinhua’s journalists underlined the primary functions and excellent performance of the solar panels made in China in order to promote its industrial standards to foreign publics.

  • to improve Sino-foreign relations

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Figure 6. Tweet published by Xinhua on 25 July 2017.

Figure 6. Tweet published by Xinhua on 25 July 2017.

As a friendly ambassador of China to foreign states, China’s national treasure has been a prominent feature of the diplomatic landscape. Generally speaking, digital communication has extended the influence and attractiveness of more traditional animal diplomacy (e.g. fauna exchange). Via Twitter, the panda has become the most adorable and popular witness of the bilateral and multilateral relationships between China and foreign nations. In fact, most of the panda-themed tweets we coded (n = 253) fit into this category. Chinese media outlets used multiple strategies to achieve political and diplomatic objectives. First, the combination of storytelling and static images to achieve emotional engagement (n = 61) was still the most frequent method (χ2 (28) = 134.85, p < .001). For instance, during Trump’s visit to China in November 2018, Melania Trump, the First Lady of the United States, visited the Panda House at Beijing Zoo and interacted with a giant panda.22 Tweet: ‘@FLOTUS Melania Trump visits the Panda House at Beijing Zoo and interacts with giant #panda Gu Gu on Friday morning #TrumpInAsia’ (11/10/2017 06:25 @CGTNOfficial).View all notes Featured in tweets about this event, the panda became a means for strengthening the ties between political leaders and their family members.

Tweets with static images published by Chinese media (n = 31) also featured rational and emotional engagement strategies for diplomatic use. For instance, panda imagery helped Chinese media outlets promote online diplomatic interaction between China and the French president’s family (Huang & Wang, 2019bHuang, Z. A., & Wang, R. (2019b). The new “cat” of the Internet: China’s panda diplomacy on Twitter. In F. Frandsen, W. Johansen, R. Tench, & S. Romenti (Eds.), Big ideas in public relations research and practice (pp. 6985). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing. [Crossref][Google Scholar]). On 4 August 2017, the first ‘French’ panda was born at the Beauval Zoo, just before the French President Macron visited China. During the visit, China’s First Lady, Peng Liyuan, selected the name ‘Yuan Meng’ from among several suggested by CCRCGP and then recommended that the French First Lady use this name for the French-born panda cub (RFI, 2017RFI. (2017, December 4). Brigitte Macron baptise le bébé panda, symbole de l’amitié franco-chinoise [Brigitte Macron baptizes the baby panda, symbol of Franco-Chinese friendship]. Retrieved from http://www.rfi.fr/france/20171204-brigitte-macron-bapteme-bebe-panda-symbole-amitie-franco-chinoise [Google Scholar]). First Lady Macron agreed and officially became godmother to the panda cub. In their tweets about this event, Xinhua invented anthropomorphic dialog for Yuan Meng: ‘I have a new name!’ (see Figure 7 left). The hyperlinked news story in the same tweet explains the meaning of ‘Yuan Meng’ and the role of Yuan Meng in Sino-French diplomatic relations. In fact, ‘Yuan Meng’ means ‘dream come true.’ It has an implicit signification in China’s political context, namely the ‘Chinese dream’ put forth by Xi Jinping. Furthermore, Chinese media posted a series of tweets related to stories about Yuan Meng and the French First Family to build an emotional perception of their ‘close relationship.’ The implicit purpose of these tweets was to underline the ‘historical friendship between China and France’ (Xi Jinping, cited in RFI, 2017RFI. (2017, December 4). Brigitte Macron baptise le bébé panda, symbole de l’amitié franco-chinoise [Brigitte Macron baptizes the baby panda, symbol of Franco-Chinese friendship]. Retrieved from http://www.rfi.fr/france/20171204-brigitte-macron-bapteme-bebe-panda-symbole-amitie-franco-chinoise [Google Scholar]).

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Figure 7. Two tweets published by Xinhua for diplomatic purpose.

Figure 7. Two tweets published by Xinhua for diplomatic purpose.

Another approach to improving Sino-foreign relations was to use panda imagery to promote China’s geopolitical policies and globalization initiative. In a tweet posted by Xinhua on 12 May 2017 (see Figure 7 right), the moving gif of a panda presents China’s Belt and Road Initiative to foreign publics. Through the animated forms of the two pandas and accompanying story, the Chinese media emphasized Xi Jinping’s vision of ‘common prosperity’ (Xi, 2017aXi, J. (2017a, January 19). Xi Jinping chuxi “gongshang gongzhu renlei mingyungongtongti” gaojibie huiyi bing fabiao zhuzhiyanjiang [Xi Jinping attended the high-level meeting of “Community to build a community of human destiny” and delivered a keynote speech]. The State Council of the PRC. Retrieved from http://www.gov.cn/xinwen/2017-01/19/content_5161087.htm#1 [Google Scholar], para. 1) achieved by Sino-foreign cooperation.

  • to educate

The panda-themed tweets published by Chinese media also featured clear educational and pedagogical attributes (n = 115). These tweets designed ‘to educate’ included a mixture of communication strategies to engage publics both cognitively and emotionally. Chinese journalists explained the biological attributes, genetic attributes, living habits, diet, behavior, and longevity of pandas via Twitter. One way they attracted the attention of target publics was to combine text and live video (n = 32) to shed light on panda characteristics and ways to protect this creature (χ2 (28) = 58.63, p = .001). A live video posted by Xinhua on 20 November 2017 (see Figure 8 left) showed adorable pandas living in the northernmost panda garden in China. In the video, an animal expert explains some biological attributes and living habits of pandas. Due to the very cold winters in northern China, many netizens express concern about the pandas’ ability to adapt to the local climate. The animal expert responds, during the live broadcast, with a detailed explanation about the temperature, environment, and foods that pandas prefer. This open lecture attracted at least 5000 live viewers.

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Figure 8. Two tweets with live video published by Xinhua for educational purpose.

Figure 8. Two tweets with live video published by Xinhua for educational purpose.

Another example of this type of content is the live video of a panda cub delivery on 5 August 2017 in France. Xinhua launched its first live broadcast on Twitter to show, with explanation, how a giant panda gives birth. During this live video lasting 28 minutes and 57 seconds, the journalist first introduces the basic situation of the panda mother. Through the monitor screen inside of the zoo, Twitter users witnessed the birth of two panda cubs. French animal experts were subsequently interviewed about the status of the panda mother before giving birth and its situation during parturition (see Figure 8 right). Because only one of the two panda cubs survived after birth, animal experts also list scientific reasons in the video to help viewers understand.

  • to show China’s sense of international responsibility

China’s efforts to protect its ‘national treasure’ represent a willingness to sustain ecological health and to improve the genetic quality and environment of pandas. Chinese media used panda-themed tweets to endorse and share the government’s contributions to biodiversity protection. According to the crosstab test we conducted, Chinese media used both emotional and cognitive engagement strategies in all tweets of this type. In terms of text modality, Chinese media posted an equal number of tweets containing ‘text + static image’ and ‘text + video clip’ (n = 19) (χ2 (18) = 52.72, p < .001).

The storytelling in these tweets focused on three themes: achievements in panda conservation, scientific experiments designed to protect biodiversity, and protection of wild pandas. Regarding the first, Chinese journalists typically quoted experts or authorities to valorize the government’s conservation efforts. For instance, a tweet posted by People’s Daily on 14 September 2017 highlighted the increase in wild pandas in a northwest China province. The hyperlink included in the tweet points to a news story featuring an expert’s positive remarks about the government’s achievement.33 Tweet: ‘Wild #panda population rises from 274 in 2003 to 345 today in northwest China province http://bit.ly/2f8Fr6c’ (09/14/2017 15:47 @PDChina).View all notes

The tweets related to scientific experiments on biodiversity concentrate on the strategic release of pandas to the wild, the purpose of which is to help artificially-bred giant pandas adapt to a natural living environment. The Chinese news media have repeatedly used live video on Twitter to report this type of activity. For instance, in a live video tweeted on 23 November 2017 (see Figure 9 left), Xinhua’s reporter explained the purpose of this research and interviewed an animal expert to underline successful Chinese efforts to protect the giant panda population.

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Figure 9. Two tweets published by Xinhua and CGTN to convey China’s sense of international responsibility for protecting biodiversity.

Figure 9. Two tweets published by Xinhua and CGTN to convey China’s sense of international responsibility for protecting biodiversity.

Chinese media also reported the government’s efforts to rescue wild pandas. CGTN tweeted a short video clip on 3 December 2017 (see Figure 9 right) to tell a news story about saving a wild giant panda. By using different subtitles, CGTN presented background information and highlighted the quick and effective decisions of the rescuers as they medically treated an ill giant panda.

Conclusion

Our findings not only confirm that panda-themed tweets promoted and strengthened Sino-foreign relations using digital public diplomacy but also show that Chinese media followed the principles of constructive journalism to transfer positive emotions to target publics. By comparing the text modalities and communication effects of panda-themed tweets, we also confirmed that live video and video clips significantly improved online interaction with target publics. Engaging publics through interactive content has the potential to expand the influence of China’s digital panda diplomacy.

Beyond the identification of various engagement strategies in panda-themed tweets, we did not examine the relationships among online interaction, text modality, and content type. In future studies, scholars should explore the communication effects of China’s digital panda diplomacy through the various types of interaction that emerge between Chinese media outlets and their publics on Twitter. The objective is to evaluate whether panda-themed tweets published by China’s state-owned media have a real impact on foreign public opinion. In particular, how far do panda-themed tweets travel online? Do such tweets increase the diversity of followers of Chinese accounts? Do these panda-themed tweets really have the power to change foreign public opinion of China’s development?

Public diplomacy scholars view social media as a way to integrate information, institutions, and publics, creating relationships and engages target publics through online interaction (Hayden, 2012Hayden, C. (2012). The rhetoric of soft power: Public diplomacy in global contexts. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. [Google Scholar]; Huang & Wang, 2019aHuang, Z. A., & Wang, R. (2019a). Building a network to “tell China stories well”: Chinese diplomatic communication strategies on Twitter. International Journal of Communication, 13, 29843007. [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar]; Pamment, 2016Pamment, J. (2016). Digital diplomacy as transmedia engagement: Aligning theories of participatory culture with international advocacy campaigns. New Media & Society, 18(9), 20462062. doi: 10.1177/1461444815577792 [Crossref], [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar]). Sevin and Ingenhoff (2018Sevin, E., & Ingenhoff, D. (2018). Public diplomacy on social media: Analyzing networks and content. International Journal of Communication, 12, 36333685. [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar]) argued that using social media has the potential to improve and enhance the image of a state. By comparing the online public diplomacy practices of New Zealand, Australia, Belgium and Switzerland, they pointed out (a) the relationship between social media communication and how publics perceive nations and (b) the possibility of interaction between public diplomacy actors and their publics. Social media, through technical functionality and innovation, can establish ‘institutionalized social relationships’ (Cooke & Lawrence, 2005Cooke, M., & Lawrence, B. B. (Eds.). (2005). Muslim networks from Hajj to hip hop. Chapel Hill, CA: University of North Carolina Press. [Google Scholar], p. 1) in which network connectivity and online interactivity result in ‘collaborative initiatives,’ including information, narrative, knowledge, and innovation (Zaharna, 2014Zaharna, R. S. (2014). Network purpose, network design: Dimensions of network and collaborative public diplomacy. In R. S. Zaharna, A. Arsenault, & A. Fisher (Eds.), Relational, networked and collaborative approaches to public diplomacy. The connective mind shift (pp. 211248). New York, NY: Routledge. [Crossref][Google Scholar], p. 222).

In contrast to the view that China’s media has become progressively ‘depoliticized’ (Meng, 2018Meng, B. (2018). The politics of Chinese media: Consensus and contestation. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. [Crossref][Google Scholar], p. 183), our findings confirm that the practice of panda engagement remains highly politicized in the context of China’s public diplomacy. Panda imagery is not only used to interpret and endorse Sino-Foreign relations but also politically endowed to promote, however, implicitly, China’s policies. In other words, panda imagery is an important resource for Beijing’s digital public diplomacy, easily mobilized by Chinese media to transfer political information in a subtle manner. Through an analysis of 855 English-language, panda-themed tweets, we found that Chinese state-owned media outlets presented different narrative voices in their practice of constructive journalism. The core purpose was to use different types of panda-themed tweets to endorse China’s national image of a peaceful rise in global power and to enhance its growing attractiveness on the international stage. Our findings reveal what Huang and Arifon (2018Huang, Z. A., & Arifon, O. (2018). Chinese public diplomacy on Twitter: Creating a harmonious polyphony. Hermès La Revue, 81, 4553. [Google Scholar]), in their analysis of Chinese institutional communication practices under the censorship system, called a ‘timid polyphony’: the attempt to bring different voices and opinions into news story writing. Timid polyphony aims to promote and endorse specific events from various perspectives without crossing the red line of censorship. Although all of the tweets we analyzed were published by journalists from Chinese media outlets, they incorporated multiple voices while also respecting the framework and objective of China’s public diplomacy blueprint. For instance, they included the opinions and voices of experts, authorities, and publics through interviews and made pandas ‘speak’ for themselves. This variety of voices made China’s digital panda diplomacy more attractive, fulfilling the intention to ‘induce social action’ using different types of content and to strengthen international perceptions of China using different narrative strategies (Hauser, 2002Hauser, G. A. (2002). Introduction to rhetorical theory (2nd ed.). Prospect Heights, NY: Waveland Press. [Google Scholar], p. 3).

Among the various methods used by Chinese media outlets, the imagined dialog that anthropomorphized the pandas, allowing them to ‘speak for themselves,’ is a type of ventriloquism. According to Cooren (2012Cooren, F. (2012). Communication theory at the center : Ventriloquism and the communicative constitution of reality. Journal of Communication, 62(1), 120. doi: 10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01622.x [Crossref], [Web of Science ®][Google Scholar]), ventriloquism can make someone or something say words or engage in behaviors to serve the purposes of another. For example, cats are anthropomorphized as Internet memes (e.g. LOLcats) to convey human expression and emotion, including the politically oriented #CatsAgainstBrexit (Khatua & Khatua, 2016Khatua, A., & Khatua, A. (2016, December). Leave or remain? Deciphering Brexit deliberations on Twitter. 2016 IEEE 16th international conference on data mining workshops (ICDMW) (pp. 428–433). IEEE. [Google Scholar]; Thibault & Marino, 2018Thibault, M., & Marino, G. (2018). Who run the world? Cats: Cat lovers, cat memes, and cat languages across the web. International Journal for the Semiotics of Law, 31(3), 473490. doi: 10.1007/s11196-018-9559-8 [Crossref][Google Scholar]). Similarly, Chinese media used pandas to express emotion and engage publics online (Huang & Wang, 2019bHuang, Z. A., & Wang, R. (2019b). The new “cat” of the Internet: China’s panda diplomacy on Twitter. In F. Frandsen, W. Johansen, R. Tench, & S. Romenti (Eds.), Big ideas in public relations research and practice (pp. 6985). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing. [Crossref][Google Scholar], p. 69). By using childish expressions to create naïve and cute ‘panda talk,’ Chinese media implicitly conveyed their actual objectives and positions. In addition, Chinese journalists effectively used live video and video clips to build narratives and engage publics. In the writing and editorial process, Chinese journalists used hyperbolic discursive forms (e.g. exclamation marks and exaggerated emojis) to create a joyful, entertaining atmosphere that would boost interaction. Alongside the hyperbole, phatic expressions in the form of general questions reinforced interaction with online viewers.

Table 1. Panda-themed content types.

Content typeFrequencyPercentCumulative percent
To improve Sino-foreign relations25329.629.6
To entertain25129.458.9
To promote Chinese culture, attractions, or products12514.673.6
To educate11513.587
To show China’s sense of international responsibility667.794.7
Other455.3100
Total855100 

Table 2. Engagement type of panda-themed tweets.

Engagement typeFrequencyPercentCumulative percent
Emotional45553.253.2
Rational + Emotional16419.272.4
Other708.280.6
Rational + Emotional + Behavioral566.587.1
Rational546.393.5
Emotional + Behavioral374.397.8
Behavioral131.599.3
Rational + Behavioral60.7100
Total855100 

Table 3. Text modality of panda-themed tweets.

ModalityFrequencyPercentCumulative percent
Text + static image39746.446.4
Text + video clip39045.692
Text + moving gif273.295.2
Text + live video222.697.8
Text only192.2100
Total855100 

Table 4. Main effects of text modality.

 Like countRetweet countReply count
MeanSDMeanSDMeanSD
Static image170.84189.9562.6560.357.446.57
Moving gif250.41136.99105.1176.0912.007.40
Video clip302.51439.86110.99193.5211.1411.01
Text only321.05986.8640.2188.058.3713.48
Live video407.27a326.42114.4581.7622.23a12.95

aIndicates the significantly highest value.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes on contributors

Zhao Alexandre Huang is a Ph.D. Candidate and Instructor in Communication Science at the Université Gustave Eiffel (formerly Université Paris-Est Marne-la-Vallée). He works in DICEN-IDF laboratory. His ongoing Ph.D. dissertation focuses on China’s public diplomacy and strategic communication in Africa. He studies institutional practice, political and public communication strategies, the strategic narrative in the process of public diplomacy. His research interests include public diplomacy, strategic communication, public relations, and social media.

Dr Rui Wang is a Visiting Assistant Professor at the College of Communication, Boston University. His research interests include social media analytics, strategic communication, and international communication.

Notes

1 We take care to report our findings related to engagement type because intercoder reliability for engagement type was not high (Krippendorff’s Alpha, .74).

2 Tweet: ‘@FLOTUS Melania Trump visits the Panda House at Beijing Zoo and interacts with giant #panda Gu Gu on Friday morning #TrumpInAsia’ (11/10/2017 06:25 @CGTNOfficial).

3 Tweet: ‘Wild #panda population rises from 274 in 2003 to 345 today in northwest China province http://bit.ly/2f8Fr6c’ (09/14/2017 15:47 @PDChina).

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