always a good idea to have multi stakeholder approach --- I would argue that it's always good to have a multi stakeholder approach in multilateral diplomacy. My experience in the nuclear, chemical and biological weapons non-proliferation and disarmament regimes (NPT, CWC, BWC, 1540) is that involving civil society, industry, parliamentarians, academia, etc. in addition to States is normally a very good idea. It brings in different perspectives, expertise that may be missing from some States, research and analysis. The list of positives goes on. I don't see why this approach shouldn't apply similarly here.

Source author: Scott Spence scott.a.spence@gmail.com

the different faces of urbanisation --- Thanks for the comments on urbanisation. I find it really interesting to see how the topic garnered a lot of attention in our discussion. I do agree, it is important to not view urbanisation in only negative terms - for the reasons you and others have pointed out. As always, it is quite a complex picture. KatharinaB said it nicely when she argued that urbanisation can look quite different and in particular different in developed and developing countries.

Source author: Katharina Höne KatharinaH@diplomacy.edu

we are part of nature --- Well spotted, Carlos. I think this is a very important comment on a conceptual level. Our intention here was not to see human as separate from nature. But I think it's very easy to slip into this perspective.

Source author: Katharina Höne KatharinaH@diplomacy.edu

'socialising the pixels' --- Well said, Petal. I also really appreciated Carlos' comments on this. I would also emphasise that 'socialising the pixels' is also a call for including social science methods in understanding the situation (in particular in-depth interview, perhaps even participatory practices)

Source author: Katharina Höne KatharinaH@diplomacy.edu

Indigenous and Local Knowledge at IPBES --- Thanks for the additional information, Max. Really interesting to hear about UNESCO's role. What really intrigued me is that IPBES pays attention to the knowledge of indigenous peoples and local communities.

Source author: Katharina Höne KatharinaH@diplomacy.edu

How can Open Science be the default? --- I agree with you Nikola that established researchers were timid to leave their turf of habits and rewards and embrace the Open Science nature. But the real reform needs to happen not just at the researcher/ institution level but together with the Government and National Science systems to consider Science as a common good for Society

Source author: George Thomas georgethomasdesk@gmail.com

land change from history --- The agricultural revolution has added a lot to this. In the book Sapiens Yuval Harari mentions how we made the land a place for grains: "How did wheat convince Homo sapiens to exchange a rather good life for a more miserable existence? What did it offer in return? It did not offer a better diet. Remember, humans are omnivorous apes who thrive on a wide variety of foods. Grains made up only a small fraction of the human diet before the Agricultural Revolution. A diet based on cereals is poor in minerals and vitamins, hard to digest, and really bad for your teeth and gums."

Source author: George Thomas georgethomasdesk@gmail.com

Give and take relationship --- Agree. and I would like to add that, since we are part of an ecosystem, we are linked together. Our behaviors impact nature and the impacts will continue to eventually comeback/ affect us. The only sustainable way I envision the interactions between human and nature is reciprocity. We rely on the natural resources, and need to make sure to protect the exhaustible resources. , and renew the renewable resources.

Source author: Sovanndanit Roath sovanndanitroath@gmail.com

Taking nature for granted --- In a way, I think it's because we human are too used to receiving and using nature, as it has always been there. It used to be abundance, so we forget that it is still limited and bound to run out. Only when we started to see the consequence (e.g. climate change), and felt the danger that's coming, did we started to care. I don't think people care about nature per se, but rather scared of what destruction of nature might bring.

Source author: Sovanndanit Roath sovanndanitroath@gmail.com

Target 15.2 --- As someone from a country with a huge illegal logging, "End deforestation and restore degraded forests" is strikingly important. In some Asian countries, my country alike, deforestation is not just a consequence of the necessity to economic development, but because people still consider rare timber as valuable ornaments, thus illegal logging targeting luxury timber to feed this demand.

Source author: Sovanndanit Roath sovanndanitroath@gmail.com

data gathering --- science helped to gather data, analyze it and predict by results. This data helps policymakers in decision taking.

Source author: Encieh Erfani encieherfani@gmail.com

sky --- I am an astronomers so I love gazing at stars.

Source author: Encieh Erfani encieherfani@gmail.com

benefit vs service --- I have problem with this world. If we look at the nature as a "system" which is giving us (human) service then we will not take responsibility to protect it. nature, animals, plants, trees are not created to give us service. We abuse nature.

Source author: Encieh Erfani encieherfani@gmail.com

sky --- I wonder why we did not consider sky as part of our planet. Due to the light pollution we are loosing fauna, flora and dark skies.

Source author: Encieh Erfani encieherfani@gmail.com

2020! --- We already passed 2020 and we did not reach non of the goals in due time. In general I wonder from which perspective the politicians who made SDGs put these deadlines. It is quite strange that despite difference of SDGs the same deadline is considered for all of them.

Source author: Encieh Erfani encieherfani@gmail.com

Bhutan Policy on envirenemnt --- Thanks YingChu for sharing this information , maybe it is linked to the culture and the relationship of people with nature .

Source author: Souhila Amazouz souhila_amazouz@yahoo.fr

Treaties on Biodiversity --- Thank you for sharing these resources , I am impressed about the number and also to see that it was addressed at multi lateral level since nineties but still no significant progress.

Source author: Souhila Amazouz souhila_amazouz@yahoo.fr

Co-existence on earth --- I think you summarized well in two words consumerism and human attitude towards nature . I think to save the planet we need to educate people on the need to co- exist with other species and respect of other types of lives on earth and this is in my view is similar to states commitments in COP and treaties.

Source author: Souhila Amazouz souhila_amazouz@yahoo.fr

Very important --- In my opinion, we need to develop science-policy interfaces for social sciences. I believe that our societies have almost all technical tools to improve the current situation; what's lacking is a better understanding of the inefficiencies of our current socio-economical models, which social sciences could provide.

Source author: Samir Yeddes samir.yeddes@eda.admin.ch

conceptual clarity --- While I understand perfectly the reasoning behind the creation of that concept; I think that it would be helpful to develop scientific concepts to describe the fact that we are part of the ecosystem, not users/consumers of an external service provider ...

Source author: Samir Yeddes samir.yeddes@eda.admin.ch

IPBES vs IPCC --- Interesting to note that IPBES is much less known by the general public than IPCC.

Source author: Samir Yeddes samir.yeddes@eda.admin.ch

nature is everything... --- I would argue that nothing would be possible without our natural environment, including the very existence of human beings! We are part of an ecosystem, anything that we can benefit from comes from the natural environment.

Source author: Samir Yeddes samir.yeddes@eda.admin.ch

Urgency --- I find it interesting that the word "urgent" appears twice in Goal 15 targets.

The only other goal that mentions the word "urgent" is Goal 13 "take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts".

It probably reflects the sense that those issues (climate change and life on land) need to be considered as priorities.

Source author: Samir Yeddes samir.yeddes@eda.admin.ch

urbanisation and convenient life --- Human can not live alone. People help each other in daily life. We enjoy convenient life, health care, transportation, and advanced technology because people live together and make these happen.

There is demand, there is innovation.

Urbanisation is convenient, right? We don't need to walk too far or drive to shopping. We can ask for medical help and treatment immediately. We have tap water and don't need to walk so far to have water. Those are from urbanisation.

I don't think urbanisation is equal to the cause of pollution. But high population density in an area and without complete policy and regulation, probably make negative effects to the nature.

Source author: YingChu Chen jungheng@gmail.com

No worries from bees --- Thank you all.

I don't worry about the bees. They visit for basil flowers. I don't open the window often. I respect their work, so I don't bother them usually.

I won't rate this. I watch flowers and plants grow and change to help me calm and peaceful.

Source author: YingChu Chen jungheng@gmail.com

Engaging People --- Socialising the pixels is where the researchers use the findings of satellite imagery on land use change to engage people that use and change the land in conversations on drivers for this change.

Source author: Petal Punalall Jetoo pjetoo@gmail.com

Indigenous territories --- There is a significant overlaping between indigenous territories and forest reserves in Colombia (and in another countries on the region) so PES would be very pertinent for aliviating traditional low income in indigenosu communities

Source author: Carlos Arturo Garcia Bonilla carlos.garcia@cancilleria.gov.co

Engaging communities --- It is necessary engaging communities for socialising pixels and for this is essential to involve local and even national authorities and this is a work for science diplomats

Source author: Carlos Arturo Garcia Bonilla carlos.garcia@cancilleria.gov.co

More deep understanding --- Socialising the pixels means making an effort for a real approaching to the data for understanding and not only for measuring it by making a direct interaction with the people and the place researched which provides morre deep information about dinamics involved

Source author: Carlos Arturo Garcia Bonilla carlos.garcia@cancilleria.gov.co

Conflicting concept --- I always have a conflict with the way this is stated. I don't think we interact with nature, we are nature. Averything we do and everything we experience is nature. There is nothing out of nature (unlees we believe in supernatural things). It is as we consider an interaction between ants and nature or between whales and nature. They are nature!. I think we consider humans as something out of nature and therefore able to interact with nature but is a anthropocentric bias

Source author: Carlos Arturo Garcia Bonilla carlos.garcia@cancilleria.gov.co

Taget 15.4 --- I was initially thinking about 15.3, also because it has shown that in combination with other factors it is a risk factor for armed conflicts (Sahel,...), but since Mouloud already mentioned it, I chose one that is also important because of the link to desertification: mountain ecosystems. The change there including water depletion or floods because of combination of melting and unusual rainfalls harms life further down, and can increase the risk of desertification

Source author: Katharina Beyer katharina.beyer@etu.unige.ch

Grand Challenges & Hackathons --- Much needed approach Aura! Two examples that come to mind: Grand Challenges such as those by Gates Foundation or national governments, as well as more recent mechanism of hackathons. In both cases, specific problems (statements) are identified (ideally) by policymakers and experts, and then they rope in both established and amateur researchers/technologists to come up with innovative solutions.

Source author: Vid Nukala Vid.Nukala@gmail.com

urbanisation in developing vs developed countries --- while preparing a policy brief on urban planing and physical INactivity (btw one of the leading cause for DALYs) I saw how different urbanisation can be and what diverse impacts it has. While tarred or concrete surfaces add more heat (so negative on climate change), encourage car traffic (less physical activity) and harm ecosystems, in HIC this is more due to urban sprawl than to urbanisation, whereas in LMIC it is the growth of townships that produces these negative impacts. Urbanisation can have green surfaces (roof gardens, green playgrounds instead of stone gardens or carparks), and reduce for example traffic due to long commuting.

Source author: Katharina Beyer katharina.beyer@etu.unige.ch

closer look at urbanisation --- I certainly agree that urbanisation does not only have negative impacts, Vojko. In that sense, your comment is a powerful reminder that the complexity of an issues needs to be taken into account - esp. when it comes to policy. I tend to think of the benefits of urbanisation mainly in terms of benefits to humans (housing, access to health care, access to jobs etc.). When it comes to SDG 15, I actually do not detect anything related to the reduction of urbanisation. Target 15.5 states: 'Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species.' The indicator for that target is the 'red list' of threatened species. So from that perspective, it would be great to hear more about your concerns in this regard.

Source author: Katharina Höne KatharinaH@diplomacy.edu

Reducing urbanisation is that really what we want? --- There are many scientific publications in peer reviewed journals stating how urbanization actually reduces energy consumption, which means that the impact of urbanization on emissions is positive. This should stimulate policy makers to work more closely with urban architects in future plans and concepts. At the same time, urbanization pushes towards new innovative solutions that help improve environmental quality, even more than in rural areas. Alex Steffen explained this concept very well in several books, essays, documentaries, speeches. However, we see that one of the goals of SDG15 is the reduction of urbanization, SDG 15.5. My impression is that the rationale behind this decision is based on outdated considerations when urbanization was seen only as a loss of land, with a negative impact on ecosystems and biodiversity. Too often we neglect the opportunities offered by urbanization to tackle environmental challenges more seriously and efficiently, together with the effort to ensure a better and safer life to a large part of the population.

Source author: Vojko Bratina vbratina@katamail.com

and inequality --- An interesting report about land and inequality: https://www.landcoalition.org/en/uneven-ground/

Even if not a geopolitical territorial dispute, a dispute over control of land (who owns it, who can produce on it, what can be produced on it) can also cause conflict.

Source author: Levi Helm lthelm@asu.edu

Palm oil --- Good point - the conditions of production matter quite a bit. It's part of what makes palm oil so interesting. Palm oil, per unit area, is incredibly efficient: https://www.wwf.org.uk/updates/8-things-know-about-palm-oil. Less land is needed than for other common oil crops.

However, where it is grown is incredibly biodiverse, and the forests emit a lot of carbon dioxide when they are cleared for palm oil plantations. So, even if less area is used than other oil crops (like soy), the impact is high.

Another interesting (and complicating) factor is about the cause of deforestation. Certifications, like RSPO, prevent palm oil from being grown on deforested land. But, this doesn't stop cropland from being turned into palm plantation -- cropland isn't forest. However, there still might need to be cropland that is grown, and so deforestation occurs to produce crops. In this case, palm oil is not directly causing deforestation, but deforestation is occurring, in part due to the land demand for palm oil (see the indirect land change example above).

Source author: Levi Helm lthelm@asu.edu

Challenges to this model --- I agree that this model of doing research with decision-makers involved is incredibly valuable. One of the challenges, however, is incentives. Although this is changing to some extent, scientists are generally incentivized (financially & professionally) to conduct research that is the most novel, and produces new information. This type of research, however, is not always the most useful for making decisions.

Source author: Levi Helm lthelm@asu.edu

Good answers --- Measuring land change is just one aspect - to understand why requires also understanding the people involved.

Source author: Levi Helm lthelm@asu.edu

Good point --- You make a great point here, that is easy to overlook. Emphasizing one SDG could come at the expense of others. We need to use land to produce food, or to produce products for markets. This though, affects life on land (to varying degrees, depending on how the land is used)

Source author: Levi Helm lthelm@asu.edu

Identifying relevant questions together --- I find the idea very interesting to "have the decision-makers as part of the project design" in order to identify the relevant questions together, in particular with the local stakeholders. This is a change from the more traditional and promoted process of bringing scientific data to decision-making levels after the project has been developed and implemented. In my opinion, this raises to another level the role of science diplomacy and the need for ever closer collaboration, where we no longer only share the results but we collaborate upstream in setting-up a context-adapted process to produce these results

Source author: Aura Fossati aura.fossati@gmail.com

Food --- One of the most important elements to consider here is the growing population in this countries and the need for providing food for this population. Goverments face the dilemma of expanding the agricultural border affecting ecosystems, or tryng to improve land use efficiency which usually means more agrochemicals. I think waste and lost of food have an important role here to avoid this phenomenon

Source author: Carlos Arturo Garcia Bonilla carlos.garcia@cancilleria.gov.co

Implementation --- Even before Nagoya Protocol, andean countries had the Desition 391 about genetic resources and consult process with local communities. However, implementation of this Dessition have been poor and the results are frustrating for both sides: researchers have seen obstaculized their work and communities haven't seen any benefit.

Source author: Carlos Arturo Garcia Bonilla carlos.garcia@cancilleria.gov.co

Agreed --- I think that one of the great potentials of science diplomacy is precisely that of giving the possibility of bringing together forces and resources (also financial) to develop and coordinate mechanisms and instruments that allow, above all, to collect the data necessary for analyze and therefore address a global problem. The lack of data is a big challenge for many transnational issues.

Source author: Aura Fossati aura.fossati@gmail.com

Invaluable benefits --- I grew up in a very isolated house, in the middle of nature, consuming a lot of products cultivated by my mother, taking advantage of a source of drinking water on site, enjoying the animals of the forest around, several variety of flower that changed with the seasons and the calm that characterized this place. The benefits are invaluable on many levels: physical health; well-being; awareness of the importance of not wasting, of respecting the resources that one is lucky to have available and the balance between your life and others; spirit of adaptation and other values ​​or attitudes that are very useful to me today that I live in a big city, with a much lower quality of life where it is easy to forget the respect one should always have for nature

Source author: Aura Fossati aura.fossati@gmail.com

Interdisciplinary cooperations --- Country borders blinded governments to the connections populations of each country. We can’t look at countries solely, environmental challenges were a proof as mentioned here before. It did cost a lot to come to this realization. However, its not only the borders between countries blinding us, also the invisible borders between disciplines, which I am sure did not start disconnected like this and I can’t find where it went that separate .

Source author: Muna Zaqsaw zaqsaw.muna89@gmail.com

Nature is the treasure --- Other than the mental benefit nature provide, whether on the mountains or on the beach, it is mesmerizing to see the full cycle of life within nature. It is giving a lot to the science world, giving resources, patterns, solutions by only observing it. Nature provided treatment and is the base for medications. Nature is our treasure on the planet. Nature made life possible on earth and not any other place in this universe.

Source author: Muna Zaqsaw zaqsaw.muna89@gmail.com

Bee bite --- I also loved the photo Chen, I do have few plants and I really enjoy watching the cycle as you said. Did a lot for my mental status last year during covid and other personal tough circumstances. To get to Desire’s comment, we learned from school that bee bites are good for our immunity and physical health, so I would say , the bite , if not raise the rating it will keep it the same :)

Source author: Muna Zaqsaw zaqsaw.muna89@gmail.com

Ecosystem services bs Nature’s benefit --- I personally love the term ecosystem because it shows a cycle with a start and end point connected all the way through. As much as I respect nature for what it is giving for the human species, but we are very selfish and not thinking of how to sustain that service and to provide to nature and take care of it. Nature’s benefits is more about taking and consuming without thinking of the consumption consequences at all

Source author: Muna Zaqsaw zaqsaw.muna89@gmail.com

Sci & Diplo --- That is the reason why science and politics (diplomacy) should cooperate. With the better understanding of our surrounding will give us much more power for policy development and better communication

Source author: Nikola Bozic nikolab@diplomacy.edu

Are we keeping the planet safe? --- Whenever I hear about keeping the planet safe, as an astronomer, I think that we are hypocrites. Planet could be a nice planet even with the temperature of 1000 degrees :-) Instead we should say that we need to preserve the environment for the survival of humans. 

Source author: Nikola Bozic nikolab@diplomacy.edu

Question for Chen --- Thank you Chen for this beautiful picture that allows me to start my day with a lot of positivity. Do you mean that the visit of the bees attracted by your flower gives you a certain quality of life? How would you rate this on a scale of 1 to 10? If a bee were to bite you one day, would this rating change?

Source author: Désiré NEBOUA dneboua@yahoo.fr

Benefits from nature --- One of the benefits of nature is that it provides us with several therapeutic solutions against some common diseases. Some of the existing treatments against malaria are derived from plants, therefore from nature. I would say that nature does a lot for humans, offers us many benefits but we do little to preserve it in a sustainable way.

Source author: Désiré NEBOUA dneboua@yahoo.fr

Indicators --- For me, the indicator 15.2.1: "Progress towards sustainable forest management" does not push countries to make progress because the level of progress to be achieved is not clearly specified. On what basis progress is measured?

Source author: Désiré NEBOUA dneboua@yahoo.fr

Data Collection Mechanisms --- Data driven decisions will help to guide actions in the right direction towards a sustainable future. Many Caribbean countries struggle with data collection and analysis. Mechanisms/ strategies to address data collection and analysis should be designed. Science diplomacy can contribute to capacity development and the pooling of expertise to aid in this design

Source author: Petal Punalall Jetoo pjetoo@gmail.com

ICT --- remains a technology that can underpin future growth and innovation. As several applications, such as broadband and e-commerce, are still in their early stages and may have a large potential for future growth.

Source author: Tarniem Shokry Iskandar tar.eskander@hotmail.com

In my opinion, --- Having an education system that best meets the needs of a competitive economy

Source author: Tarniem Shokry Iskandar tar.eskander@hotmail.com

Agreed. In fact, the purpose of a visit is to further break down a number of motivational segments. --- These include history and culture, business travel which include meetings, incentives, conferences and exhibitions, diving and other sports and English language learning. For example, the outlook for Malta is to achieve a business mix which best reflects international trends, the country’s offer, and its interest towards sustainable growth.

Source author: Tarniem Shokry Iskandar tar.eskander@hotmail.com

Also, building strategic partnerships --- focuses on strategies for negotiating, building, and maintaining partnerships with other organizations that are key organizations in the community that can assist you in achieving your goals.

Source author: Tarniem Shokry Iskandar tar.eskander@hotmail.com

Couldn´t agree more --- The Botswana Investment agency actually insists on these B2B meetings prior to departure to ensure that the companies are not only engaged but have potential for business....

Source author: Omphile Sethunya Sedimo sedimosethunya44@gmail.com

Many thanks. Can you please elaborate a bit... --- ...how this works, and how it will help Mexico? I would like to understand this a bit better.

Source author: Kishan S Rana kishanrana@gmail.com

You may be interested to know that Canada has run... --- ...virtual trade shows for over a decade. It is a pioneer in the application of ICT in dip systems....For some 10 years and more, any phone call outside office hours to a Canadian mission automatically goes to a call center. They evaluate the urgency and put the caller in touch with someone at the mission contacted who will help them, if needed....Today's ITC makes this almost cost free in some ways...But how many of our countries do this?

Source author: Kishan S Rana kishanrana@gmail.com

And barring exceptions, how may politically appointed... --- ...Amb will possess the skills and that 'killer instinct' -- in a good way?....A name that comes to me of a non-professional envoy, High Commissioner Dorcas Kgosietsile of Botswana, who would have won the award for the best envoy in New Delhi some twelve years back, if we had such an award.......We don't celebrate our own exemplars.

Source author: Kishan S Rana kishanrana@gmail.com

Absolutely the right way. --- Mexico could share such experiences more widely. That's not boasting, but useful sharing of success stories.....We all have good stories to tell.

Source author: Kishan S Rana kishanrana@gmail.com

Mexico could use such a success story to... --- ...spread awareness of its methods to other MFAs.

Source author: Kishan S Rana kishanrana@gmail.com

Has anyone considered an informal competition... --- ...between the smaller SADC members (leaving out SA), to compete for the best investment conditions? Such methods can help to improve awareness, and lead to real actions.

Source author: Kishan S Rana kishanrana@gmail.com

Multilateral industrial bodies & other international organizations --- This extends also to the multilateral arena. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Mexico is launching the Territorial-Industrial Prospective Atlas for the Attraction of Investments with the support and assistance of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), UN Habitat and the academic sector to create a strategic analysis aimed at identifying sectors with great development potential in specific territories of our country, to strengthen Mexico's sustainable economic strategy towards economic recovery.

Source author: Cecilia Treemonisha Barros Ruiz cbarros@sre.gob.mx

Invest promotion --- South Africa has a fairly fragmented investment promotion system that is delegated to the nine provinces and even to cities. Trade and Investment South Africa (TISA) is a national agency that functions as a division of the Department of Trade, Industry, and Competition (DTIC). At the moment, provincial agencies are competing for investments at a high rate. While this may encourage provincial agencies to be more efficient, there are some potential downsides, such as disorganized information management which tends to discourage investors and 'incentive wars' between provincial agencies, results in inadequate national investment

Source author: Matshedisa Emily Mokoena mokoenamati@gmail.com

Virtual Mode --- A virtual trade show, is cost effective, since it is accessible by virtual participants all over the world at any time of the day. Some virtual trade shows even offer a live chat feature where representatives can chat with participants.

Source author: Matshedisa Emily Mokoena mokoenamati@gmail.com

SADC --- According to the World Bank Ease of Doing Business Index 2019, most SADC Member States performed poorly and as a result experienced lower intra-SADC investment and FDI (this excludes Mauritius, Botswana, and South Africa). The cause, is linked to lack of dialogue and cooperation among SADC Member States, as well as tending to treat each other as "competitors" when developing investment policies. The SADC Protocol on Finance and Investment (FIP) calls for an investment policy strategy, that necessitates SADC Member States to co-ordinate their investment systems and co-operate to create a profitable investment climate within the region

Source author: Matshedisa Emily Mokoena mokoenamati@gmail.com

The importance of Match-making --- Exactly Judah !The goal is to create cooperative connections and realize business opportunities that mutually benefit both parties. It's the most efficient way to find, meet, and talk to new collaboration partners.

Source author: Cecilia Treemonisha Barros Ruiz cbarros@sre.gob.mx

The Mixed Tourism Promotion Fund (FMPT) --- In 2019, the Mixed Tourism Promotion Fund (FMPT) signed just over 50 contracts for the promotion of Mexico City in local fairs, conventions and events, with a total cost of 127 million 82 thousand 973 pesos. Communication and dissemination strategies for campaigns on social networks were also considered. The Mixed Tourism Promotion Fund is an entity of the Government of Mexico City whose main function is to advise and finance plans, programs and actions in order to promote tourism activity in Mexico City.

Source author: Cecilia Treemonisha Barros Ruiz cbarros@sre.gob.mx

CEO's meeting with a Mexican delegation --- Important new issues such as health cooperation could be discussed. On April 13, 2021, the Undersecretary for Multilateral Affairs and Human Rights of Mexico visited the United Arab Emirates accompanied by the Ambassador of Mexico to the UAE and officials of the MFA's General Directorate of Global Economic Impulse to hold a meeting with Mr. Ashish Koshy, CEO of Group 42 Healthcare. Relevant issues of cooperation in the framework of the COVID-19 pandemic, in particular, the Sinopharm vaccine manufactured in the United Arab Emirates were discussed, but also, how the company was conducting clinical trials with the vaccine as well as the plans and perspectives about sales and distribution to other countries outside the Middle East. Should we consider this a new health diplomacy?

Source author: Cecilia Treemonisha Barros Ruiz cbarros@sre.gob.mx

Ambassador's skills --- In addition to a thorough knowledge of their own country and the country of their assignment, an Ambassador should have communication skills, capabilities for collecting information and negotiating, one of the main tasks Ambassadors must develop and also, if necessary, learning new languages can be helpful to get more confidence from different local actors with whom he will have to be permanently in touch.

Source author: Cecilia Treemonisha Barros Ruiz cbarros@sre.gob.mx

When you look around, say at a major diplomatic capital, say Addis, or Berlin, or Beijing, you may find... --- ...that the best diplomats blend the two experiences, formal training and skill picked up on the job. Each reinforces the other.

Source author: Kishan S Rana kishanrana@gmail.com

Excellent point. Match-making is the right way... --- ...to push for successful outcomes at B2B encounters, including visits by business delegations.

Source author: Kishan S Rana kishanrana@gmail.com

Linking economics with security is an interesting approach. --- Do we know of other examples? Broadly, even if security is not listed as an objective, stronger trade and investments strengthen links which adds to mutual security. It becomes an incidental outcome.

Source author: Kishan S Rana kishanrana@gmail.com

Why only 'mulled' on a unified visa? Why not implemented one? --- Regional dip -- and any kind of effective dip -- is about moving from ideas to actions....Of course there are obstacles, as always. Without action, good ideas wither on the vine.

Source author: Kishan S Rana kishanrana@gmail.com

Thanks for a very relevant article on... --- ...how digital methods have become so relevant in economic diplomacy. Recommended for reading to the class.

Source author: Kishan S Rana kishanrana@gmail.com

Thanks for these observations. May I... --- ...make a general point? Multitasking is an asset, not a liability. That is what all Heads of Missions are required to do, and their DCMs as well. In fact the essence of diplomacy is just that -- how to find linkages and connections between disparate issues, to advance one's own case, by offering something the other side seeks -- and that is usually on another subject track....This is also the real argument against too much reliance on 'experts', because they don't know the range of subjects that are usually at play in a bilateral or regional relationship. And ML dip is always about finding connections. Do please think this over.

Source author: Kishan S Rana kishanrana@gmail.com

Timeous feedback and/or reporting --- is very crucial to be perfected by Missions abroad for local beneficiaries thereof because it does not only inform home-based think tanks about potential markets but also for securing such markets before getting known by others and being saturated.

Source author: Malefetsane Dominic Mosala mosalalaw@gmail.com

Skill acquisition through long service vis-a-vis formal training. --- For the undeniable fact that modern diplomacy is becoming more professionalised and specialised, is a good reason why it’s beneficial to have a diplomatic corps with a wide range of backgrounds. This should be at the entry level and not "learning on the job" phenomenon that has been the practice since it is evident that in recent years formal training has replaced that practice due to the fast paced change the world is moving towards, with the necessity of people who understand and are able to go with the flow of that pace.

Source author: Malefetsane Dominic Mosala mosalalaw@gmail.com

Ambiguity in a Romanian aphorism --- "My ancestors were not illiterate; they were reading the stars."

This utterance sounds a bit better in Romanian, but still I believe that it expresses a fine ambiguity.

Vasile Ghica

Source author: Petru Dumitriu PetruD@diplomacy.edu

Perdidi diem --- I was about to say that the right citation is "Diem perdidi" and it was made classic by the historian Suetonius in his work "De vita XII Caesarum". He attributed that sentence to Emperor Titus, who meant that he lost a day if he had not done anything good. Looking twice at the expression I understand that I should have looked not only the the Latin version but also to the English one to understand. It is a clever play of words, indeed. "Nunc fortunatus sum", too!

Source author: Petru Dumitriu PetruD@diplomacy.edu

Vagueness of reference --- Encouraged by the unexpected openness to the Latin, for which I thank the Prof, I dare to add another maxim in Latin. It does not come from the time of the Ancient Rome but from the time the Christian theologues used Latin to write their exegeses:

Deus omnes avertat: God contradicts predictions.

The sentence is somehow obscure at first sight; it is indeed a bit vague. In fact, it means that one should not really believe predictions, because the Almighty God can change His plans.

Source author: Petru Dumitriu PetruD@diplomacy.edu

Ambiguity and clarity (one more aphorism, please) --- "A peasant cannot be a philosopher: his language is too clear." (Vasile Ghica).

I may not need to explain more. The language is clear for both philosophers and peasants.

Source author: Petru Dumitriu PetruD@diplomacy.edu

Oxymoron. Wotton. An example --- Another remark that can be done with this utterance as a whole is that the sentence can be seen as an oxymoron. In theory, one cannot lie and pretend to be honest.

However, this is not necessarily a figure of speech. In reality, as we have discussed in previous modules, the diplomats are not representing themselves but their countries. Their mandates may require them to lie bluntly or by omission in order to protect the national interest of their sending countries. They can be honest as individuals, while lying professionally.

I was once very close to a very active Ambassador of Tunisia to Bucharest, before and after the Jasmine Revolution. In our official meetings in November 2010, the Ambassador presented with enthusiasm and strong arguments the achievements of President Ben Ali in modernizing the economy and in the emancipation of women. In January 2011, after the fall of Ben Ali, she presented with equal enthusiasm and strong arguments the positive change brought by the Jasmine revolution.

For me, as a diplomat, the respective Ambassador remains an honest person.

Source author: Petru Dumitriu PetruD@diplomacy.edu

Lying abroad for the good of his country --- Well, the first ambiguity is a secret of Polichinelle among diplomats. People refer sometimes to other meaning of the word "lie" (with), that is the sexual connotation. Apologies to ladies! (I try to be chivalrous!)

Now, that interpretation in the practice of diplomacy is as archaic as this specific meaning is in the use of language.

Source author: Petru Dumitriu PetruD@diplomacy.edu

@John: SDG graphs --- That's remarkable! Very useful! Thanks, John. I will use it. Stolen things have a sweet taste!

You deserve a special prize for such contributions to our exchange. You have a "+" to your A, from my humble self!

Source author: Petru Dumitriu PetruD@diplomacy.edu

Definition in the international law --- I would oppose to the Aristotelian approach the less philosophical but clearer approach of the international law.

Under international law, for example, genocide is not only defined but is also illustrated with examples.

"In the present Convention, genocide means any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such:

(a) Killing members of the group;

(b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;

(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;

(d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;

(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group." (Article II, Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide).

So are other categories defined in other Conventions. It is true that the public, the journalists, and the politicians try to distort or reinterpret legal language in their own way, but still international law draws the line between right and wrong.

Source author: Petru Dumitriu PetruD@diplomacy.edu

Definition of democracy --- In 2000, I was the protagonist of the negotiations of the resolution of the Commission on Human Rights evenbtually adopted as 'Promoting and consolidating democracy' (resolution 2000/47). This was the first resolution in the history of the United Nations trying to produce an internationally negotiated agreement on the definition of democracy ('democracy' as you know is not refered to in the Charter of the United Nations).

While several delegations had serious problems in accepting democracy, in its political meaning, they could not object plainly to the notion. Therefore, we had to fight on the territory of semantics.

For example, the initial title of the draft resolution was "Code of democractic conduct". We had to water it down to the final title (see above).

Also, the initial draft contained in its first operative paragraph a definition of democracy. This was also considered by some too Procustrean, so we had to transform the definition into a list of "ways" to "consolidate" democracy. In subsequent years, the list of features of democracies was expanded, while the pressure to water it down led to the inclusion of "inter alia".

Diplomacy and language are old friends

Source author: Petru Dumitriu PetruD@diplomacy.edu

Original ordering --- The images are definitely easier to read and remember than the original list. Do you know what the guiding principle behind the ordering of that list was?

Source author: Biljana Scott biscott@diplomacy.edu

Madagascar --- Have made as priority the cybercrime by creating laws and a police entity for cybercriminals.

CIIP and Cyber defence are still not in the agenda.

Source author: Ioniarimalala RAKOTONIRINA ioniarimalala@gmail.com

@Bilijana: the role of euphemisms --- For a long time, I thought that euphemisms were better ways to express vulgar or dirty words, or, indeed, at the upper level, to see bad things in a more acceptable light.

Now, due to this fascinating course, I dusted another old book from my shelves: "Kind words. A Thesaurus of euphemisms", by Judith S. Newman & Carole G. Silver, Avon Books 1991.

They define the euphemism on the cover as

"the use of a word or phrase that is considered less distasteful or less offensive than another". That covers more or less my personal definition.

However, the preface of the book speaks about a more complex world of kind words. The texts mention five general semantic processes by means of which euphemisms are created: borrowing words from other languages, widening, semantic shifts, metaphorical transfer, and phonetic distortion. Under thematic distortion techniques only I found abbreviation, apocopation initialing, back forming, reduplication, blending, diminutive. Elevation and degradation as a pair of opposite terms are also mentioned.

I learned that “snafu” is a euphemism. If they say so!

Speaking is not as simple as one could think!

Source author: Petru Dumitriu PetruD@diplomacy.edu

Acrostic! --- So clever, you've created an acrostic as well as one of your visuals, thank you! Character - who Location. - where Amount. - how much Reason - why Interaction - how Time. - when Yoke - link it it all together

Source author: Biljana Scott biscott@diplomacy.edu

Black and white communication --- You have identified a very important point here: effective communication with large audiences is best done through short, clear and memorable categories that adopt black and white categories, foremost among them good versus bad.

Source author: Biljana Scott biscott@diplomacy.edu

2 questions --- Good question! I think that the frequency of usage does indeed break down our resistance to a term. I still find 'smart power' problematic but I don't bat an eyelid when I read about it because I recognise that the author is genuinely using the term on his/her own terms in trying to promote an argument about best policies and not trying to promote some devious 'the ends justify the means' approach. Intention is therefore relevant even at this level of god use.

Another question is whether we become brainwashed by these terms? Do euphemisms genuinely make us see bad things in a good light?

Source author: Biljana Scott biscott@diplomacy.edu

Rhetorical question --- Thank you for this introduction to Amb Mahbubani and the link.

Why do you say that the title of his speech 'What is International Diplomacy?' is a rhetorical question? I can see why the title of his book 'Has the West lost it?' might qualify as one, but it seems to me that he breaks down the title of his speech into its component parts (what is the international state today? what is diplomacy? what can you, the audience, do/contribut?) and addresses it as a genuine information-seeking Wh Q.

There is a kind of Q used by lecturers and textbooks which is not addressed at the audience but used as a heading for the discussion that follows. Is this what you have in mind?

Source author: Biljana Scott biscott@diplomacy.edu

Another loaded question --- The questioner likes to see himself as chivalrous and gentlemanly, reducing the argument to a false dilemma.

Source author: Alejandra Mayela Martinez Silva ammartinez@sre.gob.mx

Remotely patronising --- The words "remotely patronising" load the question. It is clear that the questioner believes otherwise. Another way to ask the same question, without assuming a position, would be "Why some women consider patronising for a man to open a door and say "Please, ladies first"?

Source author: Alejandra Mayela Martinez Silva ammartinez@sre.gob.mx

Totally agree with Eric's answer --- I would only add that Blair should not ever refer to his sleep patterns. Once you cross the bridge, you must burn it down.

Source author: Alejandra Mayela Martinez Silva ammartinez@sre.gob.mx

reframed --- She could have bridged first by negating the pressumption "I disagree with that premise. We don't know the data you are refering to, and how is the link made between that and sanctions. However, what we do know is that the Saddam Hussein regime is responsible for x, y, z, those are observable and well documented facts, and sanctions are the best tool we have at our disposal to bring him to line"

Source author: Alejandra Mayela Martinez Silva ammartinez@sre.gob.mx

Electoral campaigns... --- ..particularly those between two parties, are plagued with false dilemmas. However, sometimes these are needed to facilitate a decision or convey an appealing image to the electorate. Some of these opposed ideas like "law and order" vs "chaos", "good jobs" vs "tax breaks for the rich", "free enterprise" vs "socialism", willingly ignoring an ocean of options standing in the middle.

Source author: Alejandra Mayela Martinez Silva ammartinez@sre.gob.mx

5 --- Improvement implies the previous situation was worse.

Source author: Alejandra Mayela Martinez Silva ammartinez@sre.gob.mx

How they become so --- Would this be a case similar to "a lie told a thousand times becomes a truth"? It is interesting how the term "soft power" is barely questionned today, while others such as "just war", "pre-emptive war", etc, may still face resistance to agree that we all refer to a commonly agreed connotation.

Source author: Desirée Colomé Menéndez dcolome@sre.gob.mx

As my mom says... --- My mom always says "There are different ways to kill a cockroach, by spraying insecticide or by mercyless crushing it with our shoe." I agree that there is always a "more graceful" way to say anything, unless grace is deliberately not part of our agenda, which I doubt should be the case in diplomacy.

Source author: Desirée Colomé Menéndez dcolome@sre.gob.mx

Magic formula --- I see a pattern here: with different names, but we always seem to go back to the idea that a good combination of facts and emotion (logos and pathos, force and grace) are a good tool to deliver an effective message.

Source author: Desirée Colomé Menéndez dcolome@sre.gob.mx

Exactly! --- Always look out for elements that have been bundled into the same basket but don't belong together

Source author: Biljana Scott biscott@diplomacy.edu

Diplomatic response --- He actually answered 'I don't fear them but I worry about ...' and then made his speaking point. No rebuttal or confrontation, but an important caution about the state of the world and the need for better statesmanship.

Source author: Biljana Scott biscott@diplomacy.edu

Handcuffed by multiple questions --- Are loaded questions your favourite fallacy or are they the only question format you know?

Source author: Biljana Scott biscott@diplomacy.edu

ABC approach --- Yes, definitely the way to go! I would omit mention of Hiroshima since it was the US who dropped the bomb and caused those casualties, and instead elaborate on how the aid that is sent to mitigate the worst effects of sanctions never reached its vulnerable targets because it was seized by Sadam, stockpiled and sold to the highest bidder.

A: Acknowledge the tragedy of loss of life esp children B: Bridge by showing just how tyrannical and irresponsible Sadam is C: Communicate the even more pressing need to impose sanctions in order to bring him into line

Source author: Biljana Scott biscott@diplomacy.edu

'These things happened' --- is the presupposition in each case. The joke impales WC and my guess is that it must derive from a film or set expression that was doing the rounds at the time.

Source author: Biljana Scott biscott@diplomacy.edu

example --- when did you stop smoking? can also be an assertion for that he will never stop smoking, depending on the tune that has been used.

Source author: Maryam Almheiri jody_06@hotmail.com

example --- when someone forget to do the homework, teacher ask: But don't you forget to sleep/eat/breathe?

Source author: Maryam Almheiri jody_06@hotmail.com

example --- honor killing: In many justice system in Arab countries, murder in between family members sometimes can be called killing for honor, if one of the female siblings was caught having an affair or relationship outside of marriage.

Source author: Maryam Almheiri jody_06@hotmail.com

Force and Grace --- There are several rhetoric questions at the beginning: “What happens if…”. The Senator uses “we, Republicans” to present what Republicans should want. He provides questions and answers them, validating as true his own position and he does it in an aspirational way. He uses several metaphors: “Leadership knows where the buck stops”… An excellent one is when he says “as the alliances and agreements that ensure the stability of the entire world are routinely threatened by the level of thought that goes into 140 characters” and describes it as a “mercurial behavior”. By saying so, Senator Flake is qualifying the president’s intelligence and meaning that, with a mere tweeter, -and the president makes extensive use of those- he puts the country and the world in danger. Finally, through his speech, Senator Flake appeals to shared values, interacting with force and grace most of the time.

Source author: Blanca Jimenez bjimenez@sre.gob.mx

Categories --- At all times, Piers Morgan places the "ladies" apart and therefore makes a difference in rights and skills

Source author: Blanca Jimenez bjimenez@sre.gob.mx

To be or not to be --- By pronouncing this sentence, Robin Day implies that because a person is a politician and therefore remains in power, he or she does not have the right to be believed. One can be a politician and/or a transient and still be credible

Source author: Blanca Jimenez bjimenez@sre.gob.mx

Not necesssarily... --- One thing does not necessarily imply the other. Both may or may not be true. Or one may be true but not the other one.

Source author: Blanca Jimenez bjimenez@sre.gob.mx

Assumptions --- It implies that we fear all great men and that all great men inspire fear, which is not the case.

Source author: Blanca Jimenez bjimenez@sre.gob.mx

Extremely --- This question is extremely loaded. First, by asking about the "big" men, it immediately conjures all sorts of presuppositions: strong, powerful unflinching men. Then, by not giving an option, but exclusively stating that at least one of those big men is feared, the interviewee is cornered! He has been pushed into answering about something that perhaps he doesn´t feel, which is fear, but he is given no choice. I would answer something like: "First of all, I acknowledge that some people might consider these men "big", either in physical or in political stature. I, however, might differ in that qualification. And second, I am reminded of the old adage ´I fear nothing but fear itself´, so, to answer your question, I do not fear any of those men, regardless of their size!"

Source author: Christian Peter Clay Mendoza cclay@sre.gob.mx

Use --- We can also use the information we have actively listened to for our advantage later on in the debate.

Source author: Christian Peter Clay Mendoza cclay@sre.gob.mx

Loaded --- 1.- Are you truly deaf, or do you not want to hear what your people are demanding?

2.- Are you always this nonsensical, or is this a one of?

Source author: Christian Peter Clay Mendoza cclay@sre.gob.mx

Presupposition --- The presupposition is that Albright was ok with the price of half a million dead children. She could have reframed this way:

"Yes, so many died in Hiroshima and half a million in Iraq as you just said and I believe that not a single child should have died, not one! They are the ones who have paid this terrible price that the Iraqi government has imposed upon them and we have become involved precisely in order to save them!"

Source author: Christian Peter Clay Mendoza cclay@sre.gob.mx

If... --- The clever, tongue-in-cheek implication here is that Western civilization WOULD be a good idea...(if it existed!).

Source author: Christian Peter Clay Mendoza cclay@sre.gob.mx

End --- Fighting has reached an end, thanks to modern diplomacy.

Source author: Christian Peter Clay Mendoza cclay@sre.gob.mx

Old style --- Implying that old style diplomacy was not as effectie as modern diplomacy

Source author: Christian Peter Clay Mendoza cclay@sre.gob.mx

Certainty --- There is a certainty that diplomacy will improve things which will be liked by the people

Source author: Christian Peter Clay Mendoza cclay@sre.gob.mx

Improved --- Diplomacy has improved relations/dynamics between countries

Source author: Christian Peter Clay Mendoza cclay@sre.gob.mx

Before and after --- Countries had different dynamics before diplomacy

Source author: Christian Peter Clay Mendoza cclay@sre.gob.mx

Barely --- Modern diplomacy "barely" minimizes conflict

Source author: Christian Peter Clay Mendoza cclay@sre.gob.mx

The success --- Modern diplomacy is successful

Source author: Christian Peter Clay Mendoza cclay@sre.gob.mx

Yes indeed. --- Forgot all about the loaded question part in this exercise!

Source author: Marie Betts-Johnson mbj@ipicalifornia.com

Oops! --- Now I see it...back to the drawing board on this one. And here I thought Madeleine Albright should have known better!!!

Source author: Marie Betts-Johnson mbj@ipicalifornia.com

non-tariff barriers --- Yes, the eradication of non-tariff barriers (NTBs) in the region will also boost competition, which is good for economic stability, and will ensure that all businesses can interact on an equal basis, allowing entry into the market while sanctioning and restricting price fixing, thereby correcting market failures.

Source author: Matshedisa Emily Mokoena mokoenamati@gmail.com

Importance of process --- Bennette - yes, and no. Major players of course run new initiatives to project their interests. But, new initiatives also influence how the process will go - e.g. a shift from a GGE to OEWG was pushed by Russia and China as it allowed more countries with less knowledge, which waters down tight negotiations on specific and complex maters (thus, OEWG was more of a capacity building effect to bring others on board). At the same time, OEWG is not inclusive enough (formally) re. other stakeholders - and the PoA aims to provide formal channels for other stakeholders to have a say - which is an agenda of France and European actors, with partners. PoA also suggests a review process, which then allows establishing a mechanism to assess success and adherence to agreed rules - which is not in interest of Russia and China directly...

Point is: process is equally important as substance - it is the way to achieve goals. In that sense, various tabled proposals about how the process (known as 'institutional dialogue') should look like - is useful and important, and can bring progress as well; it could increase time needed for an agreement, but at the expense of a greater quality of what we get at the end.

Certainly, launching new processes can also serve to slow down the main negotiations, as a tactic itself. Watch out for those!

Source author: Vladimir Radunovic vladar@diplomacy.edu

Assessment of implementation --- Eduardo, Andrin, one challenge with binding norms is that there should be a mechanism in place to assess and evaluate adherence and progress. Yet, there are many challenges for this in cyberspace - from complexity of attribution, to under-reporting of incidents, lack of methodologies to assess costs of cyberattacks, etc.

How can we craft an evaluation/assessment mechanism for this? What should be taken into consideration by it?

Source author: Vladimir Radunovic vladar@diplomacy.edu

What each one of us can do --- Alan, you strike the important point: what can each one of us do? Often, many of us see these diplomatic debates as too high-level, and feel that there is not much we can do but take popcorn and watch. Non-inclusive nature of those processes contributes to this.

What can we do? You lay out some ideas, I will add to that - I invite others to add as well.

We discussed already that cybersecurity depends on all the stakeholders - and each (industry, civil society, tech community, users, governments, IOs) have their own roles. It is important to understand our roles and responsibilities, and 'lead by own example' in implementing global rules, norms and CBMs.

Some of the roles for each one of us to shape these negotiations include: - raising awareness among communities, and shaping vox populi, about importance of these political and diplomatic processes - developing capacities of various actors to put up the measures, but also to understand global processes and find ways to contribute/influence them - assisting our states and delegations to shape national positions, and meaningfully participate and influence negotiations - cooperating and sharing information among various actors about attacks, origins, damage, purposes, and research on how existing or emerging international instruments can be implemented - raise awareness among our governments about international agreements in the field - and hold them (and other stakeholders) accountable for adhering to those -...

Source author: Vladimir Radunovic vladar@diplomacy.edu

Global treaty and 'ordinary states' --- It is interesting that we mainly look at how the global treaty would impact big powers. Yet, as some of you suggested, superpowers will remain superpowers - and the treaty will be by large adapted to their needs and preferences.

What often stays out of focus is 'ordinary states'. Escalations among superpowers is not likely due to cyber-attacks (or if it happens, we will have bigger concerns to deal with). Instead, wars are waged in other parts of the world - Africa, Middle East, etc. This is where, with more digitalisation, we can expect that cyber-attacks could be used along with warfare, and where escalations - including conventional weapons - are likely. Most of those states, however, don't have the capacities to deeply understand the technology behind, or legal and other implications.

If we don't have rules in place, other states will follow the examples/precedents set by superpowers - in terms of attribution/finger-pointing, response, armament, etc. If we have rules, other states are more likely to adhere to them - to avoid unnecessary pressure by the international community (even if superpowers won't always stick to the rules).

It is important to get out of the US-Russia-China framing - which is dominant today in media and public and community discourse - and think more seriously about how all this (trends, lack of rules, and rules) will impact other states and their relations, especially in war-torn or tensed regions.

Source author: Vladimir Radunovic vladar@diplomacy.edu

CMBs --- CBMs and voluntary norms may reduce the tension and the escalation of the conflicts upgrade the level of the trust between the nations, so it can be an important measurement for the peaceful cyber operations but not everyone will adhere on them without any binding, enforcement and ability to reciprocate the accident.

Source author: Mustafa Yaasin Sheik mysheik@hotmail.com

We need to be patient --- There is a need for a global treaty, for sure. Is the international community ready for it? No. However, it is not a bad thing. We are on the right path. So many working groups, norms, and recommendations have emerged, with encouraging results. The long detailed discussions have resulted in expected behavior from states, and slowly but steadily, they are impacting actions at the international and local level. Cyber security is now present in the agenda of every major international organization, and states are issuing laws and regulations to address it. A constructive result of all the work that has been carried out is the UN set of norms of responsible behavior in cyberspace. As mentioned in this module’s materials, “while non-binding, they reflect expectations, increase predictability, reduce risks of misperceptions, and contribute to conflict prevention.” This set of norms can be the basis of a global treaty, as the UNGA has already adopted them.

Source author: Juan Feliciano Ascencio Moctezuma jascencio@sre.gob.mx

Parties in the armed conflict: third states --- Guillaume, to add to the complexity: how about third states which are involved by the mere nature of how internet works? Say servers in a third country (and it is usually more than one country) hosts command-and-control for a botnet - or hosts many bots? Or, an IT infrastructure of an institution in a third country served as a spring board to penetrate into the systems of the attacked country?

Are these third party involved? Should have they done due diligence and prevent this? Can we make a parallel with allowing one's airspace to be used by a third country's fighter jet or missiles to fly through? And, can we be sure that this third country didn't know about being used - and that it hasn't actually allowed it tacitly, or even assisted?

Source author: Vladimir Radunovic vladar@diplomacy.edu

IHL and voluntary nature of norms --- Scott, true, IHL was intended for war-time. Yet, there was no such means of disruption (hybrid warfare) back at the days; today hybrid operations can actually impose pressure than warfare.

GGE and OEWG set the ground for 'peacetime', instead. US and allies are trying not to re-open IL and IHL discussions because of cyber - as the risk could be great; norms should be an add-on. But, they are voluntary, and thus far not really taken up seriously by either party. Russia and allies use this as an argument that we need binding norms - and a treaty.

There is lots of interest in this game, of course.

Source author: Vladimir Radunovic vladar@diplomacy.edu

Self-defence in reality --- In reality, the issue of self-defence boils down to whether an adequate response to cyber-attack should be a cyber-attack - or traditional means are allowed. For small countries (and this is where Cuba was a strong proponent), it is important that it stays cyber-cyber, which may give certain 'asymmetry' advantage to small states in warfare (though the asymmetry argument is also debatable). If conventional weapons get into the game, we quickly get back to the world order that we have now.

US is a strong proponent of cyber&conventional. NATO's position is clear that they may respond by all means. This makes sense from the military perspective: if cyber is a new field of military action (along with air, land, sea, and even space) - and this is being accepted by more and more countries - than why limiting the response to one field only.

Russia and China, however, are still on the opposite side - and they were backing (or pushing) Cuba's point (which was one of the stumbling stones in the failure of GGE in 2017). Since the two are among very few leaders in OCC, and their opponents (US, EU and the west in general) are much more digitally exposed due to their open digital economy and society, they still have (a perception of?) advantage in cyber-cyber - thus reducing the risk of turning into all-out war in which US is still dominant.

As stakes get higher, my guess is that we will move towards 'cyber&conventional', and at some point Russia and China will align with that when it becomes in their interest (this may also depend on if US will enforce its 'defence forward' approach and increase counter-cyber-attacks). But for years to come, this may be a stalemate point.

Source author: Vladimir Radunovic vladar@diplomacy.edu

Two UN processes - peace, and cybercrime --- To add to this discussion, it will be interesting to observe if, and how, the negotiations on cybercrime convention will get connected to the work of OEWG and GGE.

The 'West' is strongly against this - they emphasise that GGE/OEWG work is under the 1st Committee, and should not be in any way mixed or connected with the discussions on cybercrime which is under the 3rd Committee. There are many arguments, including the risk of slipping into discussions on content policy/control (which is present in cybercrime negotiations).

Russia and their partners, on the other hand, are very eager to see a treaty that would limit internet openness and allow national censorship and content control; it is shooting from all the cannons - proposal on Code of Conduct (related to international peace), and a proposal for a Cybercrime convention. It is interested to connect the two.

For now, it seems cybercrime process is more ripe to bring a draft treaty (though it will be a long process). It will be interesting to observe if and how GGE and OEWG reports will be referenced in this cybercrime dialogue - I bet mainly by Russia and its partners, rather than by the US and its partners. Yet, the GGE norms also have references to cooperation in case of cybercrime, and 'due diligence' of countries to provide assistance if attacks are coming from their territories - which is of great importance for combating cybercrime.

Source author: Vladimir Radunovic vladar@diplomacy.edu

Threshold - definitions, and interests --- A first step may be increasing predictability: making sure that we all know what each country considers a threshold. This is why the UN GGE, and the related resolutions of the GA, invited states to submit their own views how international law applies, including understanding the armed attack. Thus far, only handful of countries have done that - we list some in this reading. Yet, it is important to understand that this process takes time even within each country - it requires thorough internal discussions, likely in a multistakeholder venue, to understand all aspects and agree on national understanding.

Next step could possibly be negotiating a common ground - once majority of (especially key) players has come forward with their positions.

One open question, however, is if states (again, especially big ones) have enough incentives already to make this area more defined - or they still benefit from lack of common understanding, and thus a greater space for maneuver?

Source author: Vladimir Radunovic vladar@diplomacy.edu

What do we regulate? --- Although cyberwarfare as an issue in diplomacy and international is not new, there is no clarity on how to regulate it. It is not an easy task to transfer the international regulatory framework to the cyber field. International law, humanitarian law, and disarmament processes have long addressed a physical aspect: violence and harm (we can see and count weapons and victims and visualize damage to infrastructure). In this course, we have studied how cyber-attacks cause harm, which can be a starting point to reflect further and explain how the lives of citizens in our countries are affected by them. If we want to pursue a similar path in codifying norms, decision-makers need to see concrete ways in which society’s lives are affected. The threshold of cyber-attacks should be discussed more deeply if we want to end up with something similar to a global treaty or the Geneva conventions.

Source author: Juan Feliciano Ascencio Moctezuma jascencio@sre.gob.mx

Capturing the data during conflict --- Interesting thoughts, Vladimir. I see few scenarios for capturing the data of the counter-party during the conflict: - Spearphishing and tailored operations to target right higher-level officials/officers of government, companies and organisations in the other country, to penetrate into networks and steal data. This would require substantial staff and tailored TTPs. - Ransomware: Spreading ransomware to targets in the other country, and lock and/or capture the data. There is the risk of a spill-over effect to other countries, however, as it might be hard to control the (further) spread of ransomware. - Traffic capturing through changing BGP routes: Reconfiguring BGP settings of major routers in own country (such as telecom operators) to redirect Internet traffic (from the other country, especially if it is a neighboring one) through our own network, especially for espionage. This is trackable and would soon be identified, possibly disrupting wider Internet flow (in the region or beyond), risking political repercussions. It is also rather possible for big, more powerful states, that can suck more of the regional/international traffic without being immediately noticed.

Any other scenarios?

Source author: Vladimir Radunovic vladar@diplomacy.edu

The GGE and OEWG Reports --- are useful for discussions/negotiations in the UN General Assembly on the proposed international legal framework on cybercrime, Devita. The reports which have been adopted by the UNGA contain useful principles that can become part of the legal framework. For example, the GGE report states that international law applies to cyberspace, which is accepted by the UNGA.

Source author: Asoke Mukerji asokem@diplomacy.edu

Who can make the difference? --- I do believe is necessary a global treaty on cyberspace, because is related to the security of every human being on the globe. It does not matter if live in a developed or developing country. There should be a global treat in charge of protecting the right to freedom. OEWG and GGE are headed the right way. However, is a process that concerns us all. We can help by reading, doing our research, and spreading the necessity of a global treaty on cyberspace. Do you believe a single person can make a difference?

Source author: Alan Kaheri Chavez Castro itsupportirl@sre.gob.mx

Not enough --- I agree international law is not enough. At the same time, a new global treaty risks reopening discussion regarding the interpretation of some norms in which there is already a very delicate balance.

Source author: Guillaume Michel Blin gmichel@sre.gob.mx

Parties in an armed conflict --- An additional element to take into account is to determine who are the parties in a conflict and define wether they are part of an armed group, or if they are military personnel from a country in the conflict. What exactly would be the status of some hackers acting on behalf of a nation without being considered personnel?

Source author: Guillaume Michel Blin gmichel@sre.gob.mx

Collective response --- This is particularly relevant when considering collective actions and responses in case of cyberwar, for example at the Security Council.

Source author: Guillaume Michel Blin gmichel@sre.gob.mx

Private sector --- the involvement of lead tech companies is important because they are one the main actors of internet governance. However, the power battle remains on who controls the internet.

Source author: Muna Hemoudi mhemoudi@gmail.com

Application of international laws --- I think applying international laws is not sufficient because we need to take into account the internet governance issues, main actors, and policies. Also, laws are not flexible enough or updated regularly with regards of the impact on citizens.

Source author: Muna Hemoudi mhemoudi@gmail.com

incidents --- This raises a question about failed cyber attacks. What are the steps usually taken by a government when there a cyber attack attempt fails.

Source author: Muna Hemoudi mhemoudi@gmail.com

Slowly but surely --- But is "slowly but surely" quick enough? Technology is advancing so rapidly, seemingly by the wink of an eye. How do we find the balance of encouraging technological advancements while at the same time slowing the pace of cyber attacks in particular those that can have national security, regional or global implications? However, given our current limitations, we do welcome the incremental progress made thus far.

Source author: Devita Abraham abrahamd@foreign.gov.tt

Very concerning --- In traditional war, once the war ends, there would be some implications afterwards that can more or less be controlled. However with cyber war/attacks the ripple effects would be far-reaching and quite challenging to control or put an end to.

Source author: Devita Abraham abrahamd@foreign.gov.tt

UN Convention on Cybercrime --- What role are these reports going to play in the drafting/negotiating of the Comprehensive Intergovernmental Convention on the use of ICTs for criminal purposes?

Source author: Devita Abraham abrahamd@foreign.gov.tt

Big changes --- More or less, I agree with colleagues who shared thoughts on this reflection point. Thus, in order to regulate, conduct, and cooperate in cyberspace big changes have to be applied. I think that not only a global treaty on cyberspace but also new amendments should appear in terms of laws, rules, and norms which will fit in cyberspace today.

Source author: Valerii Paziuk paziukvalerii@gmail.com

censorship --- I agree that an International Code of Conduct should exist, but I believe that it is always controversial when talking about international things that should apply to everybody (all states that agreed on something), each region, I would say, has its stated and commonly accepted rules and norms. So, in this case, the SCO intervention doesn't really apply to the norms and regulations which are common in the West region, making it hard to interconnect and to be accepted. Censorship is always a harsh issue for the West democratic region and can't be easily accepted.

Source author: Valerii Paziuk paziukvalerii@gmail.com

Norms and Objectives --- As we see with the SDGs, creating a general and widely accepted framework applicable to both public and private stakeholder allow to create broad public awarness and provide an important framework that gives orientation.

Source author: Andrin Schwere andrin.schwere@eda.admin.ch

Responsiblity for multinational companies --- An global treaty on cyberspace could also help the prviate sector and costumers to have a reference when building new, updating existing products and for consumer to have a clearer overview of rights and obligations in cyberspace.

Source author: Andrin Schwere andrin.schwere@eda.admin.ch

A deterrent --- I agree with all of you. An international binding agreement will neither stop nor prevent cybercrime, but it could frame the behavior of states, specially of technologically powerful ones. I would say it would be a step in the right direction towards global cooperation, and perhaps a deterrent for some actors when considering the consequences of their cyber actions.

Source author: Jorge Ernesto Salcido Zugasti jsalcido@sre.gob.mx

Interconnectivity --- A cyber attack directed at military targets might affect other entities with which those targets are connected to. In the case of a virus, it could infect other government agencies as well as IoT. With today's interconnectivity it is almost impossible to ensure that the harm done product of a cyberattack could affect only the desired target.

Source author: Jorge Ernesto Salcido Zugasti jsalcido@sre.gob.mx

Definition assumptions --- The problematic aspect of the definition of cybwewar is that it assumes that a state attacks another state. This could seem obvious, but we quickly face the problem of how to attribute responsibility for the attacks. How could one state declare war on another? How can it prove that it was attacked? It all gets political and complicated. Just imagine: one state accuses another, the alleged attacker denies it, and demands the accuser to show prove, then, what would be acceptable proof for the accuser’s claim to be recognized by the international community? The accuser would get their partners’ support, and they might all act together against the attacker, but then the response would be only an issue concerning the accuser and its partners. Maybe there is no such thing as “cyberwar” but interstate conflict moving to the cyber terrain.

Source author: Juan Feliciano Ascencio Moctezuma jascencio@sre.gob.mx

Differentiating states --- cyber capacities in terms of "developed" and "developing" may not be a practical approach to attributing and responding to cyberattacks, Alan. However, your point is well taken and on the ground, it is the interests of a large number of "developing" countries that has resulted in the creation of the Open Ended Working Group in the UNGA on cybersecurity. Hopefully, the views of this broader group will result in providing the answers to the questions that you ask.

Source author: Asoke Mukerji asokem@diplomacy.edu

The UNSG's role --- is anchored in Article 99 of the UN Charter in terms of what he can initiate in the Security Council, Devita. In other areas, while the UNSG can and does play an advisory role, it depends on the member-states of the UN to adopt, adapt or implement his ideas. The fate of the UNGS's Roadmap on Digital Cooperation illustrates this well, as so far member-states have not made it into the UNGA's agenda. Unless it comes onto the UNGA's agenda, the outcome (norms, rules, principles etc) is not implementable.

Source author: Asoke Mukerji asokem@diplomacy.edu

Good point, Jorge. --- As Bentom has raised in the HT chat, however, the question is who is to decide on proportionality? Does cyberspace need a universal legal framework that offers a transparent set of criteria to apply for a "proportionate" response? Your point about the different cyber capacities of countries is well taken.

Source author: Asoke Mukerji asokem@diplomacy.edu

consequences of your acts --- If states benefit directly, sounds unfair. Again, buying day-zero malware is an activity that just a developed country can do. Then, the developed and threatened country might buy another day-zero malware just to be in equal conditions. So, when is the chain going to finish?

Source author: Alan Kaheri Chavez Castro itsupportirl@sre.gob.mx

Protecting the needed --- In the same way, how, developed countries have an advantage over the developing countries at war, developing countries have a big disadvantage in terms of cybersecurity knowledge and technology.

So, who helps the developing countries to close the gap? What happens if for any particular interest a developing country is framed to make it look like it was the one who started the attack?

Source author: Alan Kaheri Chavez Castro itsupportirl@sre.gob.mx

cyberattack report --- I’m wondering if in the same way how does the GDPR establishes a 24-hour frame to inform a data breach. Is there any regulation pushing to inform any attempt of cyberwarfare (imaging that we already agree with the cyber warfare definition)

As well as if any country claims being the target of a cyberattack, and after the provided data is determined the pointed country has no relation with the attack. Is there any consequence or warning?

Source author: Alan Kaheri Chavez Castro itsupportirl@sre.gob.mx

Mercenaries --- They are sort of mercenaries!

Source author: Guillaume Michel Blin gmichel@sre.gob.mx

Lack of evidence --- I wonder if it's lack of evidence or lack of willingness to provide the existing evidence, which could probably say a lot about the capabilities and tools of the attacked country.

Source author: Guillaume Michel Blin gmichel@sre.gob.mx

Self defence --- Interesting question, particularly relevant in the framework of international law. If there is an armed response to a cyber attack, the criteria for self-defense should be met, for example regarding the requirement that the response should be proportionate.

Source author: Guillaume Michel Blin gmichel@sre.gob.mx

Definitions --- I agree with others that different terms can be used depending on the circumstances of each case. They can depend on who the attacker is, what is the motivation, who is the target and the nature of the attack. In some cases, we could talk also about cyber espionage or cyberterrorism. I would be less inclined to talk about cyberwar, as the term war has a more broad definition. However, a cyberattack can be a weapon or a method of war.

Source author: Guillaume Michel Blin gmichel@sre.gob.mx

Cyberweapons are very much of our time... --- One of the disruptive effects of digitalisation is its impact on "governance". We need to think and function in networks to be effective. The knowledge is spread amongst many actors, including "new" actors like private hackers!<br /> Cyber weapons are mostly hybrid, "tailor-made", volatile, cheap (compared to conventional or nuclear weapon), anonymous, and with a short life expectancy! Sounds very much of our time.....

Source author: Florence Tinguely Mattli florence.tinguely-mattli@eda.admin.ch

False Investments --- Is investing in defending the country by having hackers and criminal groups the best way of protecting the CII and citizens? I am just wondering since the investments can be directed towards many areas that are more worthy.

Source author: Muna Hemoudi mhemoudi@gmail.com

No NPT for Cyber armament! --- Indeed cyber attacks against Critical infrastructures can be more effective to paralyse a country than a nuclear bomb. There is though no "Non-Proliferation Treaty" (NPT) and any country is free to build capacity (or buy expertise) with the intention to be able to conduct a cyber attack....

Source author: Florence Tinguely Mattli florence.tinguely-mattli@eda.admin.ch

Motives --- The motives of some of these cyber attacks are the political tension between the countries and the escalation of the events, eg. the Egypt-Ethiopian attack in 2020. That led the citizens of one country to conduct such attacks online in response to the media propaganda driven by their governments.

Source author: Muna Hemoudi mhemoudi@gmail.com

Budapest Convention --- Another example would be the "Budapest Convention on Cybercrime" (2001) that sets a framework for international cooperation between the Parties. The newly adopted Additional Protocol on enhanced international cooperation and disclosure of electronic evidence is allowing for cooperation with service providers.

Source author: Florence Tinguely Mattli florence.tinguely-mattli@eda.admin.ch

Cyberwar - more than economic interests --- I would say that traditionally most wars started for economic reasons, often disguised as political ones. Access to the sea and control of trade routes, access to arable land, water or other strategic resources, etc. have been at the heart of conflicts between countries or communities.

One could argue that Cyberwar is not different than "traditional" war in that regard. Stealing data or paralysing infrastructures have economic impact and can provide an advantage for the perpetrator.

However, to put it very simply, digitalisation is bringing the fight between democratic and authoritarian systems to new levels. It is not primarily about economy, but about politics and the social contract between the State and the citizen.

Source author: Florence Tinguely Mattli florence.tinguely-mattli@eda.admin.ch

Criteria --- I believe that the internet and specifically social media can be a two edged sword where information can be real or fake, but it depends on the criteria of the people reading it to determine the veracity of it.

Source author: Diego Alberto Estrada Ramos destrada@sre.gob.mx

Demand of cyberweapons --- Even though its true that not all cyberweapons are being developed by states, these need a demand, same as regular weapons in the offline world, there's a social problem that increases the need of such cyberweapons, knowing that these are not only used for state to state attacks but also amongst individuals for personal interests.

Source author: Diego Alberto Estrada Ramos destrada@sre.gob.mx

cyberweapons and physical environment --- @Diego. I agree absolutely. A cyberattack on the Airlines Electronic flight Software which facilitates scheduling can be catastrophic

Source author: Bennette Thomas thomasb@dominica.gov.dm

Can a cyberweapon affect in the physical environment? --- I believe that cyberweapons can transform into weapons that can affect people physically. An attack on a train or a plane that affects the systems and can´t be controlled anymore for example. In this case would there be a possibility to define whether these "accidents" are really disguised cyberattacks?

Source author: Diego Alberto Estrada Ramos destrada@sre.gob.mx

Evidence --- Who will collect and determine that the evidence is legit? Same as in offline crimes, evidence can be created and planted. How to know governments are not faking evidence?

Source author: Diego Alberto Estrada Ramos destrada@sre.gob.mx

Process of determination --- Which will be the process to determine if the attack was perpetrated or sponsored by another country? What would happen if a criminal organization who wants to gain more control in their country attacks through cyberspace another country?

Source author: Diego Alberto Estrada Ramos destrada@sre.gob.mx

war and conflict --- @Devita. I concur with you that there is a difference between war and conflict. However, conflict between humans or groups or even nations can easily morph into war especially in the unique world of cyberspace; there is no limit to the extent of a conflict between individuals, each having their own polarized views; The UN Charter has succinctly given a green light to war by agreeing to the right to defend oneself which may have first started with a simple conflict of ideas and morphed into a geo-political war of words and possible war; there are even "rules in war" and "rules for war" as you would be so well positioned to know. Hence, before such escalation despite the definitions/differences, CBMs and other codes of acceptable conduct should take precedence.

Source author: Bennette Thomas thomasb@dominica.gov.dm

the use of OCCs --- @Valerri. If OCCs are not the right thing, why would you want it in your possession? - to be able to make the first strike if threatened? If the problem is with the buyers, how would you acquire yours? and here comes the paradox: What is good for me may not be good for you and vice-versa; and that's the geo-political battle being raged on OCCs.

Source author: Bennette Thomas thomasb@dominica.gov.dm

Cyberwar/cyberwarfare vs cyber conflict --- War and conflict have two different meanings. War is an action using armed force by a State against the sovereignty, territorial integrity or political independence of another State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Charter of the United Nations. However, a conflict can be considered less hostile or deadly and may not necessarily be between two sovereign States but two groups rather.

Therefore, in the context of cyber space, I think it depends on the activities undertaken/attacks and the nature of these attacks.

Source author: Devita Abraham abrahamd@foreign.gov.tt

the use of OCCs --- To me, this is a controversial question. In terms of global safety, I would say that it is not a right thing to do, to buy and increase capabilities, but the question should be directly stated to those who sells, not buying. However, in terms of personal benefit, having such capabilities can lead to a positive or winning outcome. In our world, if there is something available, and you can get it faster than others, and it can benefit you in any way, it is a sure thing that you should get it.

Source author: Valerii Paziuk paziukvalerii@gmail.com

More complicated than that --- Bennette, I'd say that an "universal cyberweapon" really is more on the realm of fiction than reality. To put it more concretely, we have millions or billions of machines today running multiple versions of Windows, Android, iOS, MacOS, Linus and many other options. There are machines that run on highly customized software, too, and the list goes on. Creating a "cyberweapon" for any of those requires specific attention. These systems, to put it simply, speak completely different languages and have different structures with their own vulnerabilities. So the idea of making a cyberweapon that affects all of them is so complex, so many times more difficult than even the most sophisticated malwares, that it really might as well be fiction.

Source author: Gustavo Paiva gdp.direito@gmail.com

The role of academics --- I believe that, in the topic of cyberwar, Academia and media can play a role that ultimately makes the debate muddier, more confusing and arbitrary. For diplomats, policy-makers, military and other groups, an incident should be carefully measured and assessed in its impact. No one wants to jump the gun and say "it's war" because that opens a Pandora's box. As we saw here in some of our colleagues' comments, there's a caution associated with the use of "cyberwar". Meanwhile, for academics and media the idea of a cyberwar is fascinating. It's right there in the intersection of science fiction and reality. It's a fertile ground for catastrophic predictions and alarmist attitudes. I once attended an Internet Governance event where, on the topic of cyberwar, a very senior and experienced policy maker showed a short movie which told the story of a fictional cyberwar scenario. In it a government or terrorist organisation released a wave of small drones that flew around a city. Using face recognition they were seeking specific people that had participated in a protest. They would then crash against that person's face and detonate a small bomb that would kill them instantly. This very senior policy maker was most closely associated with civil society, and he highlighted that this scenario could happen "AT ANY MOMENT NOW" and we had to do something. This shows very well the kind of panic some people are trying to instill, often with their own goals and biases.

Source author: Gustavo Paiva gdp.direito@gmail.com

attack in cyberspace --- If we look at armed conflict, we find one side that attacks and another that protects and strikes back. Or, for example, if two sides fight for a space, a territory which is neutral or not owned by none of the sides.

In case of cyberwarfare, I consider cyberwarfare or cyber conflict as something common to the conflict mentioned above, but there is no territory. Attacks are aimed to strike CI or CII and make damage inside the core of the state.

Although, both (cyber and armed) ways, has phases in combating through troops, tanks, forces, etc. (In cyberspace there are IT, cyber experts, who have the same tasks as troops on a battlefield.)

Source author: Valerii Paziuk paziukvalerii@gmail.com

Agreed --- I agree with you, Carlos. You touched on the precise issue I have with the term "cyberwar". I find it notable that the specific incidents which academics most attribute as possible examples of "cyberwar" rarely, if ever, have the aggressor nation-state making their involvement public knowledge. There is a big advantage in keeping one's identity hidden, or at least hidden enough that plausible deniability is possible. In practice, many of the cyberwarfare cases are often closer to terrorism than actual war.

Source author: Gustavo Paiva gdp.direito@gmail.com

what is considered to be cyberwarfare --- In my opinion, cyberwarfare should be considered as an action when one side in order to damage, benefit, or to "scare" another side attacks it in cyberspace and the latest to protect itself strikes back.

Source author: Valerii Paziuk paziukvalerii@gmail.com

Mohamed, I am aware of your experience in handling FDI applications.... --- ...but improving the flow process in handling such applications -- say through an 'automatic' approval process -- is not the same as an 'ineffective' process. Those applications still have to meet set criteria and the base conditions....What it removes is the subjectivity, which is one of the reasons for corruption. Any comment?

Source author: Kishan S Rana kishanrana@gmail.com

Comment --- Implementing agencies (NGO) both local and international is what I call ‘Aid Beneficiaries’ May be they are actors too.

Source author: Dubo Mohamed mohacpr@gmail.com

Comment --- Investment applications examinations are becoming practically ineffective and removal of such entry screening is becoming the international best practice.

Source author: Dubo Mohamed mohacpr@gmail.com