Response: paradigm shifts and Thomas Kuhn --- Kuhn's text is, in many ways, a good source, though his ideas are taken up from Ludwik Fleck's "Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact" and the idea of thought collectives. For our course's purpose it is very important to think of science in the Fleck/Kuhnian or let's frankly call it social constructivist way, because we cannot conceive of natural science as solely fact- and law-based. Behind every scientific epistemology, there is a social group that 'socially' conditions its members to think in specific ways, to like/disfavour specific findings and ways of approaching puzzles. This means scientific quarrels and arguments do not come naturally, but they imply fights among and between groups/schools etc. In brief: With Kuhn, we cannot distinguish epistemology from social dimensions anymore. This is why also scientific groups/fields/disciplines of different origins (and this may include countries) can be even in harsh conflicts, they can block each other's research aspirations or findings, and they can seek allies for these very purposes. And this - funnily enough - can also lead to advances in scientific knowledge production, just as well as hampering it. Kuhn's point of scientific revolutions, as he often complained later himself about how his book was received, got far too much attention.

Source author: Tim Flink tim.flink@hu-berlin.de

social sciences to guide the practical application --- Could we think of social sciences as more than being responsible for practical application? If so, how?

Source author: Katharina Höne KatharinaH@diplomacy.edu

UNESCO: distinction between natural and social sciences --- Thanks for sharing the UNESCO perspective, Massimiliano. This is very interesting. I noticed that, as you explain, natural sciences and social sciences are dealt with in separate domains. You mention that there is some collaboration. From your experience, are there any particular challenges (stereotypes to be overcome, professional cultures to be understood, etc)? I'm wondering if the functional separation can get in the way of working together 'on the ground'.

Source author: Katharina Höne KatharinaH@diplomacy.edu

Complementary role of both sciences --- To achieve the SDG's, I think we would require to engage both branches; The theoretical expertise and evidence derived from the natural sciences to inform the methodologies, policies, systems etc that we put in place; And then we would need the social sciences to guide the practical application.

Source author: Kiconco Patricia kictricia@gmail.com

Reaction to Mouloud's comment about the distinction between natural and social sciences --- Dear Mouloud, I am graduated (BSc and MSc) in Biological Sciences, and thus I am "naturally inclined" to observe and think about the general knowledge domain from the standpoint of the "natural sciences", but I have always been attracted by the social and human sciences too. I think that most experts from both fields/sectors of knowledge (natural and social sciences) agree that it is very hard to precisely distinguish each field/sector from the other. This is the case, for example of UNESCO, the organization where I work. Within its five thematic sectors, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO established two thematic/program sectors within the broad knowledge domain of Sciences (the "S" letter of its acronym): Natural Sciences (SC); and Social and Human Sciences (SHS). I am part of the team of the Natural Sciences sector, but I frequently deal with several topics and/or target areas/groups that are mainly covered by SHS (such as "youth"). Furthermore, SC and SHS tend to work together for some events and project activities, such as the Management of Social Transformation program (MOST), which integrates some SC and SHS topics/areas/target groups. If you would like to know more about these UNESCO sectors/programs, here are the links to the home pages of SC (https://en.unesco.org/themes/science-sustainable-future) and SHS (https://en.unesco.org/themes/learning-live-together). I will also further comment on the distinction between natural and social sciences in another HT entry.

Source author: Massimiliano Lombardo m.lombardo@unesco.org

And of Biases... --- I noticed my self-bias when describing my background as "hardcore"...these are the blind-spots to be aware of and move away from in order to get out of one's comfort zone and be open to alternate perspectives and approaches.

@Tim & @Katherina, what we are witnessing, I believe, is accelerated change via convergence of technologies (Nano-Bio-Info-Cognitive - https://rm.coe.int/rathenau-report-e/1680307575) as well as fields/disciplines/sectors, which in turn give way to emerging tech and areas/approaches. It is messy, blurry, and hard-to-pin down with labels! :) Perhaps, GESDA's 'Anticipatory Science Diplomacy', is a promising approach, and would need the critical element of Ethics. https://gesda.global/vision/

Source author: Vid Nukala Vid.Nukala@gmail.com

Response to Vid and Katharina // false dichotomies --- Good conversation. Sometimes, I wonder about whether the distinction between science and diplomacy makes sense at all. Wouldn't we rather distinguish between science and politics, economics, etc. as functional systems of society, and then look at functional sub-fields, such as domestic, foreign, health, environmental policy, or disciplines and research fields in science? Then, it can make more sense to ask: what are compulsions to act in each system and sub-field? What structures actions in these fields, and what do people respond to?

Requirements of skills can be very similar. People should be kind, honest, sincere, reliable, not quarrelsome etc. Situations should be analysed, taken actions should be logical. Abberrations can be found in both systems. Policymakers just as well as scientific staff can act unreasonably, very irrational, even childish and both systems know vanity and mortifications to a great extent. What do you think?

Source author: Tim Flink tim.flink@hu-berlin.de

Response to Mouloud; distinguishing natural and social sciences --- Mouloud, I like your distinction, but will challenge you a bit. The Science And Technology Studies look at how human beings and technological artifacts interact in a meaningful way. And in some cases, we cannot even know anymore if a proper human being or a 'bot' / an algorithm-based entity is interacting with us. What do you make of this? Moreover, there are many disciplinary cross-overs between the natural and the social sciences, as regards adapting to similar or same methods and epistemologies as well as integrated approaches to puzzles and problems.

Source author: Tim Flink tim.flink@hu-berlin.de

Other paradigm shifts --- I was thinking of other major paradigm shifts in the history of sciences.. astronomy, physics From the flat earth view of the world to the modern view; From the Ptolemaic system (Earth at the center of the universe) to the Copernican system (Sun at the centre of the universe); From Newtonian physics to the Theory of Relativity and then to Quantum physics. etc.

Source author: Mouloud Khelif mouloud.khelif@gmail.com

Natural Event vs Human Society --- Maybe one way to distinguish between natural and social sciences is that the former deals with physical attributes of nature and how they interact and change, while the latter focusses on human features and the ways in which they interact and change.

Source author: Mouloud Khelif mouloud.khelif@gmail.com

One language for all --- Sometimes the international community speaks in a language unintelligible to the populations with whom we work. Using expressions, languages and even slang typical of the target populations is key for our message to be understood and have an impact.

Source author: Mario Fanjul mariofanjulbenitez@gmail.com

Influence of Religious Leaders --- The religious leaders have a very high influence in the societies. In Ethiopia, we are working with religious leaders to support the National Alliance to End FMG and Early Marriage. It is a challenge but the small changes in the leaderships could be translated in huge impacts in the communities

Source author: Mario Fanjul mariofanjulbenitez@gmail.com

The power of emotions --- As we saw in the previous module, it is important to also work from the side of emotions. That includes decision-makers since, as people, they have their own ideological, religious, cultural, family backgrounds ... Knowing who makes the decisions and persuading them from their emotions is a challenge!

Source author: Mario Fanjul mariofanjulbenitez@gmail.com

Know what we want to change --- It is important to note that advocacy should be aimed at changing attitudes that, ultimately, must be translated into public policies. That is why it is very necessary to carry out a preliminary research work, which serves to know the background of the legal and regulatory frameworks. For example, if we want to modify patterns in relation to gender inequality, it is important to study the recent history of the country, the power of cultures and traditions or the laws in force and how they were designed.

Source author: Mario Fanjul mariofanjulbenitez@gmail.com

The power of time --- It is important to bear in mind that changing attitudes takes time and perseverance. Sometimes we set very ambitious short-term goals and, finally, we fall into the realization of activities without much depth.

Source author: Mario Fanjul mariofanjulbenitez@gmail.com

The power of alliances --- Making alliance is key to reach the goals of the advocacy campaigns. Overlap efforts is not only a waste of resources and time but also could have a negative impact with our public.

Source author: Mario Fanjul mariofanjulbenitez@gmail.com

Importance of protagonism --- Although speaking on behalf of the other is the origin of advocacy, it is important that "giving a voice to those who do not have a voice" never replace the leadership of the people with whom we work.

Source author: Mario Fanjul mariofanjulbenitez@gmail.com

mission creep --- It is also equally important to ask this question along the way, whether you are STILL the best organisation to lead XYZ. I found this to be a very difficult question to address, people often don't want to let go of programs etc that have been part of the organisations work for many years even if the work has become a duplicate or unnecessary in light of other organisations taking lead over the years. Knowing when to step away is hard.

Source author: Marwa Shabbar marwashabbar@yahoo.com.au

Why --- I believe a fundamental question is why this problem occurred, this goes back to the historical and cultural sensitivity required in advocacy work. knowing the root causes of the problem means you can handle potential objections but also also empathise with the stakeholder which can go a long way in HD.

Source author: Marwa Shabbar marwashabbar@yahoo.com.au

climate change in Australia --- The debate on climate change in Australia is increasingly turning towards potential job opportunities the renewable sector will provide and less on the harmful impact of climate change. While this framing has advantages, however it also minimises the seriousness and urgency of of the issue and it is unlikely to result in the attitude shift required to address the climate crisis.

Source author: Marwa Shabbar marwashabbar@yahoo.com.au

Port Arthur mass shooting --- The port Arthur mass shooting in Australia in 1996 led to a swift and remarkable legislative change on gun control in Australia.

Source author: Marwa Shabbar marwashabbar@yahoo.com.au

Need to avert crisis in South Sudan --- This is a classic example of assistance vs development debate. As different organisations have different agendas, perhaps the development NGOs have not grown in numbers as quickly as aid organisations leaving behind a gap that may lead to further crises. Perhaps all NGOs should include capacity building and development as part of their work rather than have a divide that is causing more harm than good.

Source author: Marwa Shabbar marwashabbar@yahoo.com.au

Eurocentric approach --- It is important that this is not done in a Eurocentric approach. NGOs and even ICC were often criticised for coming to developing nations and telling Government or stakeholders what needs to be changed yet not recognising the colonial history that lead to a certain situation or the resources required to change things. So it is very important to be culturally and historically sensitive during advocacy especially for mobile staff.

Source author: Marwa Shabbar marwashabbar@yahoo.com.au

Better Access --- Partnership with other organization or with private companies that have the connection with powerful stakeholders but assessing the risk beforehand

Source author: Sheebah Mirisa orgdevmgr@redcross.org.sb

Missed this the first time around! --- Great seeing this here - I still feel we need a stronger framework to help us do the 'imagination' work required to increase the risk profile of inaction... how can we really, really boost the tangibility of inaction?

Source author: Murdoch Stephens murdoch.stephens@redcross.org.nz

Representation matters --- Inclusion and participation of the affected communities in advocacy campaigns is likely to generate interest that may lead to the successful implementation of campaign objectives.

Source author: Katlego W. Phele phelekatlego@gmail.com

Importance of paying attention to cultural context --- Paying attention to cultural contexts during advocacy campaigns may prevent organizations from being pushed out or ignored for not following or breaking protocol and etiquette standards.

Source author: Katlego W. Phele phelekatlego@gmail.com

Change is Possible, have you prepared for it? --- The institutional preparedness or assessment should be done earlier and validated to pursue advocacy engagement. The Senior Management should brief the Governance on such initiatives for their buying earlier.

Source author: Taban Sabir Alahai taban.sabir@ssdredcross.org

Invest in trust --- Involving the communities from the beginning to get their views, builds foundation that can not be easily demolished by policy makers. Is imperative to invest to be trusted and this needs time. trust cannot be built overnight!

Source author: Taban Sabir Alahai taban.sabir@ssdredcross.org

Empathy and understanding --- As we have already seen and discussed in former moments, humanitarian diplomats have to adapt and identify the proper message and way of communicating with their audiences. In this sense, to put oneself in someone's shoes as you pointed out Wossene@ it is very relevant to better focus and target the message receiver. A little bit more of empathy and undestandig is an added value to the impact of the message.

Source author: María Romero Pardo sohi1z1@hotmail.com

Mistrust in government --- I think for some people they do not trust the government, perhaps from having a previous bad experience engaging with government. e.g financial social supports taken away, child protection issues, drug/alcohol substances abuse etc.

Source author: Catherine Gearing cathgearing@gmail.com

Other associated stakeholders --- The decision maker is one, but this should also include range of close associated stakeholder that may has the influence to the agenda. according to real practice on some advocacy work, a stakeholder mapping and analysis exercise should be conducted

Source author: Samban Seng sengsamban@gmail.com

A need of advocacy plan --- From experience, there has to be a specific and SMART advocacy plan available to guide the process towards its specific goal.

Source author: Samban Seng sengsamban@gmail.com

Sensitivity of the term Advocacy in local language --- Advocacy - when it is being translated into local language it is then often being seen offensive with government or authority! Does anyone experience this? and what is the solution?

Source author: Samban Seng sengsamban@gmail.com

Competition and visibility --- thats a good point! Many organizations to achieve visibility are trying to get involved in various facets of response and we see then duplication and overlape mandates.

Source author: Riyadh Sidat riyadh.sidat@un.org

ICRC's approach --- Thank you Shane, I believe that ICRC has evolved in this domain over time, and support to the authorities/existing structures in some cases has become part of the strategy. As for denunciation, ICRC certainly avoids going public, but a lot can happen behind closed doors.

Source author: Jean-Michel Monod jmmonod@yahoo.com

Credibility --- Catherine, I would place first the credibility of the organisation, then the credibility and personality of the individual, local or international.

Source author: Jean-Michel Monod jmmonod@yahoo.com

Showing both sides of the coin --- Good advocacy should be founded on reliable evidence, not on views or ideologies, but on facts and figures that support vulnerable people's approaches. And, regardless of the type of evidence employed, it is critical to give the entire picture. To be deemed transparent and reliable, one should show both sides of the coin. One may place emphasis on specific facts to favor the outcome he or she is attempting to achieve.

Source author: Wossene Hailu Wossene_Hailu@wvi.org

As the quality of the information presented advances, the anticipated change is more likely to occur --- To push for a change, one must provide proof that is confirmed, triangulated, and tangible. To provide clear and accessible information that can impact leaders and decision makers, data must be obtained, organized, and analyzed. As the quality of the information presented advances, the anticipated change is more likely to occur.

Source author: Wossene Hailu Wossene_Hailu@wvi.org

Putting oneself in someone's shoes in communication --- As humanitarian diplomats, we must examine the most effective means of communication for the entity with which we are interacting. Mentally visualizing the communication from the receiver's perspective is a fantastic approach for the sender to improve encode their message.

Source author: Wossene Hailu Wossene_Hailu@wvi.org

Clarity and Specificity (focus) for fruitful advocacy --- In the era of information flood, clarity and specificity (focus) are firm pillars of communicating for best advocacy.

Source author: Wossene Hailu Wossene_Hailu@wvi.org

Upholding continuity --- The staff of the organisation plays a central role in promoting relationships and networks. In this sense, in order to uphold to the continuity of relationships, organizations have to push for a strong induction and orientation process to ensure that new staff understands the line of work and the importance of investing time into building relationships. The organization has also to point out the main actors where to invest this effort and the strategy to follow that should be included in the stakeholder analysis.

Source author: María Romero Pardo sohi1z1@hotmail.com

Comment --- This is wide interpretation of personal or group interest!

Source author: Dubo Mohamed mohacpr@gmail.com

This is the model ... --- ... I'm proposing to my HQs as alluded to in my earlier HT on the same. It really makes sense to have someone join the embassy who has experience with the trade/commerce systems of sending State. S/he is the key adviser to the ambassador and Capital on economic matters/issues at the receiving State, and how the embassy could harness and takes opportunities of these issues to their (sending State) advantage.

Source author: David Ateti Teaabo david.teaabo@gmail.com

Comment --- This was probably the beginning of favoritism in diplomatic appointments informed by a clique of economic elites with ties in that particular country— this kind of posting is very common today and it raises the scale of conflict of interest even further.

Source author: Dubo Mohamed mohacpr@gmail.com

Question --- In the evolution of diplomacy, we came across that sporting and religion were the initial diplomacy beginnings. Does this overlap with our initial understanding?

Source author: Dubo Mohamed mohacpr@gmail.com

Embassies roles in the Economic Development --- Economic development depends on export and import potentials as well as other prospects of the country such as market size, well established promotional strategies and identified obstacles that may arise in reaching economic growth. It is requires strongly interventions from the Embassies and Consulates by strengthening and expanding investments and trade relations with partners states and notified the relevant Ministries/Institutions about the country opportunities.

Source author: Frank John Mhina frankmhina01@gmail.com

economic statecraft --- www.cleanenergywire.org

One recent example of the use of economic craft is the recent lifting of sanctions by the US from the German company Nord Stream AG, which is behind the construction of the Nord Stream 2 pipeline that will allow additional Russian gas to flow directly to Germany. The construction of the pipeline under the Baltic Sea has been the subject of heated debate for years. Proponents argue the pipeline is a commercial investment that is key to Europe's supply security, while opponents criticise Nord Stream 2 on environmental, geopolitical, and security grounds. The Biden Administration lifted the sanctions in a bid not to compromise their relations with Germany

Source author: Lapologang Judah lapoduna@gmail.com

commercial staff --- very true Cecilia, Your situation is similar to ours in Botswana. Most commercial/economic diplomacy activities are carried out by career diplomats who have never been trained on the subject but had to learn on the Job and pursue self development through short courses such this one.

Source author: Lapologang Judah lapoduna@gmail.com

commercial attaches... --- Botswana also embraces both models, albeit not in all but a few strategic Missions. In countires where there is a considerable amount of trade and investment flows a commercial attache and/or an officer from the investment agency is sent most often with very good results. However in all other Missions the diplomats execute the commercial function.

Source author: Omphile Sethunya Sedimo sedimosethunya44@gmail.com

another example.. --- of a country which has embraced para diplomacy and doing well in that regard is Brazil especially with the States of Rio and Sao Paulo..

Source author: Omphile Sethunya Sedimo sedimosethunya44@gmail.com

Chambers of commerce --- Are Chambers of Commerce considered as part of "paradiplomacy" then?

Source author: Ndeye Gnagna Kone gnagna.pro@gmail.com

Era --- From a different perspectives, the early 1960s marks also the widespread need of auto-determinism from former colonies at a large scale and the heavy East-West polarization of the world in the midst of the "cold war"...both forming an additional pivot at that time requiring harder and further efforts from countries needing to cement or strengthen their influence and protect their best interests...

Source author: Ndeye Gnagna Kone gnagna.pro@gmail.com

Rivalries --- Indeed, as diplomatic affairs have created a sort elitism, rivalries generally arise among "home" institutions on one hand and between people from diplomatic career and some from administrative background. It is an infamous fact creating sometimes "crispy" corridors talks at the highest state levels. lol

Source author: Ndeye Gnagna Kone gnagna.pro@gmail.com

Up to these days --- Up to these days, French "diplomacy" in its former sub-Saharan colonies is still deeply rooted in these 3 principles hence the struggles in the recent years with what they call "anti-French sentiment" undermining over and over their influence to the benefits of rivals such as Chinese which are not necessarily any better but due to historical grieves and new political dynamics in the region (31 countries, the so-called "Françafrique" is struggling despite untiring attempt to revamp it with cultural/creative geopolitical hype)

Source author: Ndeye Gnagna Kone gnagna.pro@gmail.com

Covid-19 new flair in Global South Diplomacy --- Another example that has been very telling of what Cecilia mentioned has been the Cuban "Doctor Diplomacy" last year...

Source author: Ndeye Gnagna Kone gnagna.pro@gmail.com

France - Mali --- It has been quite interesting to watch the deterioration of the relations between France and its "military protegee" Mali, in the recent weeks. It's true that diplomacy starts with trade in that sense of "economic interests" but yet it's interesting to see how the power dynamics in play can determine the forms of what is considered "friendly" in a context and it's specificities.

Source author: Ndeye Gnagna Kone gnagna.pro@gmail.com

Commercial promotion of national provinces --- In Mexico after the disappearance of the national agency of commercial promotion in 2019, ProMexico, different local governments began to develop their own strategies to promote investment and businesses abroad for their enterprises. In 2020, 11 states gather together to sign a pact for the establishment of an agency that seek investments and consolidate export agreements with Europe and Asia. Some local cities also followed this lead like Monterrey, one of the wealthiest and most industrial cities in Mexico, with the platform called “Invest Monterrey” Sources: •https://www.jornada.com.mx/ultimas/economia/2020/07/15/once-mandatarios-pactan-crear-entidad-para-inversiones-internacionales-9184.html. •https://mexicoindustry.com/noticia/invest-monterrey-impulsara-la-inversion-y-el-turismo-en-nuevo-leon.

Source author: Ricardo Daniel Delgado Muñoz rdelgado@sre.gob.mx

Foreign consular protection after the independence of Latino America --- Such was the case of foreigners that claimed losses after the independence movements of Latino American countries during the beginning of the 19TH Century. These communities asked for assistance from their country of origin, which sometimes used this issue as a justification to gain major political and economic access in the receiving nation. In Mexico, the demands of various French businessmen that were not met led to a war between the two countries in 1838. The result of this war was a peace treaty to compensate French citizens that later on was replaced for a commercial treatment similar to the one given to other countries. Source: https://www.gob.mx/sedena/documentos/16-de-abril-de-1838-inicio-de-la-guerra-de-los-pasteles.

Source author: Ricardo Daniel Delgado Muñoz rdelgado@sre.gob.mx

This is an important position ... --- ... in an embassy that prioritizes economic diplomacy in its diplomatic operations. I've been tasked to develop a basic strategic plan for our new Mission in our country where we see promising economic opportunities and programmes. I argue that economic diplomacy will be a key priority for this Mission and will need an expert/experienced public servant from the Ministry of Commerce to be a key adviser in this Mission.

Source author: David Ateti Teaabo david.teaabo@gmail.com

I'm inclined to say that .... --- ... the colonizers sought raw materials from their colonies (exploitation) but sought markets from their fellow other colonizers (exploration), hence economic diplomacy was not that significant to colonized countries in those days.

But, time and tide changed their courses and the once-colonized countries now see the value of economic diplomacy and themselves in the discipline these days.

Source author: David Ateti Teaabo david.teaabo@gmail.com

I believe that ... --- ... this role of Missions is still valuable and applicable today as in centuries ago. Trade between 2 countries are guided/informed by commercial treaties; these treaties are being negotiated by both parties; centuries' old practice still remain valid these days, although the processes of negotiations and contents of the treaties are more complex to reflect the more complex society and system we live in today.

Source author: David Ateti Teaabo david.teaabo@gmail.com

Credits should be given to ... --- ... foreign merchants and their local representatives as they were the pioneers of economic diplomacy.

That said, I would imagine that issues were not likely to be resolved due to cultural, religious and political differences between country of foreign merchants and their host trading country. Thus, the employment of economic diplomacy to settle these issues and ensure a conducive environment for trade.

Source author: David Ateti Teaabo david.teaabo@gmail.com

Economic statecraft --- Economic statecraft, the use of economic means to pursue foreign policy goals. Foreign aid, trade, and policies governing the international flow of capital can be used as foreign policy tools and are considered the most common forms of economic statecraft.

Source author: Mavis Tungulu mtungulu@gmail.com

Resident Missions still needed --- At its core diplomacy is still about trust-based communication between authorised state actors, and that trust is a product of relationships constructed and nurtured with foreign interlocutors. As Paschke observed in his 1999 report for the German government, interchanges between ministers and high home officials that meet continually at conferences produces an ‘illusion of familiarity’. The craft of relationship building rests on trust, predictability and integrity and embassies ground those relationships.

Source author: Mavis Tungulu mtungulu@gmail.com

Need for resident Mission --- In a world where news is always breaking and instantly available, embassies provide analysis that is predicated on the interests and objectives of the home country that draws on information from many authoritative sources in the assignment country. News media, in contrast, tend only to report in times of crisis and with newsroom budgets shrinking all over the globe, there are fewer correspondents able to invest time in cultivating such sources.

Source author: Mavis Tungulu mtungulu@gmail.com

Emily, you make good points, bringing in the contribution... --- ...of positive steps that countries can make in favor of those they wish to help. A better word than positive 'sanctions' might be positive 'incentives'....That fits well the narrative of the positive and the negative, what Haas called 'honey and lemon'.

Source author: Kishan S Rana kishanrana@gmail.com

The Chess game of Economic Diplomacy --- The global economy has created interdependent economy which forced states to pursue its economic interests in multiple levels i.e at the international and domestic levels. The role of government has remained only in initiating strategic directions and coordinating the private sectors to take advantages and manoeuvre in the pursuit of national interests.

Source author: Frank John Mhina frankmhina01@gmail.com

specialisation in Foreign Service --- A number of developing countries are yet to embrace specialisation among their officials deployed to diplomatic Missions. The era of having diplomats as 'jack of all trades master of non' has been overtaken by events. Specialists on legal affairs, Economics, Trade, Labour, IT etc are now required to negotiate on behalf of the state and drive the mandate of a diplomatic mission.

Source author: Lapologang Judah lapoduna@gmail.com

economic nationalism --- Trade agreements if not handled with caution can cause tension and disputes between nations. A case in reference is the recent fallout between France and Australia over the French contract to supply submarines to Australia worth € 31Billion signed in 2016. The dispute escalated to the point of France withdrawing their Ambassadors from Australia and the US as a sign of their displeasure. Whilst appreciating France’s disappointment, Australia’s Prime Minister has been unapologetic about their decision to cancel the contract with France and enter into an new agreement with the Americans, insisting it was done in favour of national interest

Source author: Lapologang Judah lapoduna@gmail.com

Economic Statecraft --- Economic statecraft can take the form of both positive and negative sanctions. Threatened punishments and embargoes, boycotts, blacklists, prohibitive buying, expropriation, punitive taxation, aid suspensions, and asset freezes are all examples of negative sanctions. Positive sanctions, on the other hand, refer to actual or promised benefits such as preferential tariffs, subsidies, foreign aid, investment guarantees, and preferential taxation of foreign investment. According to experts, countries that use aggressive economic statecraft at the core of their foreign policy without clear diplomatic goals, run the risk of inflicting economic pain on other countries, and this, never produce the desired results.

Source author: Matshedisa Emily Mokoena mokoenamati@gmail.com

Economic diplomacy concept --- So true, this one links economic diplomacy and commercial diplomacy, to soft power tools, and that both diplomatic concepts are are becoming increasingly important in the advancement of national economic goals and the strengthening of economic relations between countries, which has been pointed out already.

Source author: Matshedisa Emily Mokoena mokoenamati@gmail.com

To interpret correctly --- One can interpret correctly only by considering the context in which the communication took place. For instance what was atmosphere? There is also need to find out the position of the message within the sequence of the conversation.

Source author: Akua Sekyiwa Ahenkora sekyiwaa@yahoo.co.uk

The Unsaid --- can we also call this as silent or quite diplomacy?

Source author: Akua Sekyiwa Ahenkora sekyiwaa@yahoo.co.uk

Danish example --- That is a brilliant example indeed!

I agree with you in that there can be a real gap between legal/formal apologies and humane/sincere apologies, and their outcomes might well be very different for the offended part.

In the context of institutions and States, public apologies are a very powerful form of reparation (acknowledgment of the wrongdoing and, sometimes, guarantees of non-repetition).

However, in the context of personal relations, formal/legal apologies might be of poor value as compared to humane/atonement apologies :)

Source author: Liliana Oliva Bernal loliva@sre.gob.mx

In-person interaction is not likely to be replaced by technology --- I totally agree with Désirée and Andrej!

The depth of an in-situ insight, the way personal connections can help to build trust and acquire knowledge, the interplay between personal connections/State to State connections cannot be fully replaced by technology.

The work of a diplomat consists, precisely, on providing what technology and public info cannot provide to the interests of its State. The human factor at its best!

Source author: Liliana Oliva Bernal loliva@sre.gob.mx

A tentative refusal, but more context is needed --- For instance, in a Mexican or even Latin American context, I can't imagine this conversation ending here. The guest is providing a reason for not drinking coffee, but at the same time it's not saying No. In Mexico or many other Latin American countries, it could be perceived as rude if the host does not insist any further.

Source author: Alejandra Mayela Martinez Silva ammartinez@sre.gob.mx

Yes Andre --- I believe this is a good example of an Apologia (now that I have an idea of what that means!). The question is why bother? My feeling is that the US had two ways to go: Acknowledge their mistake using an Apologia or ignoring the incident which would have escalated the situation. The Chinese, no doubt knew it was a false apology, but it allowed them to save face.

Source author: Marie Betts-Johnson mbj@ipicalifornia.com

A forceful and gracious telling off! --- What a powerful speech, thanks for linking it Mamta! I've never heard the verb 'perlocutes' but the hoped for outcomes from this speech, as stated by Chimamanda, are: 1. That not only Germany but Belgium, France, Britain and other colonising nations return the art that they have taken by force from their colonies. 2. That these countries should have there courage to tell the whole story not a misleading part of their histories. 3. That they should reconsider the imbalance of power that allows some countries to label the art of others as 'ethnological' 4. That the Humboldt Forum should live up to the meaning of forum as a space for the free exchange of ideas - and hasn't she done great job of questioning the 'glow' of their self-regarding charity with this masterful speech, thus setting the tone for honesty, courage and hope that she would like the forum to deliver. Yes, she definitely challenges the ethos of the Western colonial powers in this speech, but this is not the perlocution so much as the intention, and it is not coded but overt. The reason her speech is so powerful is that her argument is so well crafted, her criticism so well targeted and her delivery so firm without being hostile.

Loved it, have enjoyed Adichie's TED speech and other talks, as well as her books. Thanks again for alerting me to this one!

Source author: Biljana Scott biscott@diplomacy.edu

Sorry --- The entire letter seems to have been written with the sole aim to placate the other side. 1)The regret over the missing pilot and aircraft seems more of an acknowledgment than actual regret. 2)The request to convey a 'sorry' to the people and the family, comes across as a ticking off an item on a to-do list. 3)The third sorry is a question asking why verbal clearance was not granted? Also a veiled threat saying we are glad that the crew landed safely or else there may have been other repercussions. *The tone of the overall letter comes across as very condescending.

Source author: Mamta Reid liveandsmile@hotmail.com

@Bilijana, MacOswald: Rwanda - hate speech in a cultural context --- People will always find a "cultural interpretation" if not "justification" of their crimes. I reproduce for you an excerpt from the statement of the representative of Rwanda in the Security Council , delivered on 16 May 1994 (doc. S/PV/3377).

This is just an introduction. The whole text might be an interesting reading.

"I speak to you in order to invite you to look more deeply into the tragic events that are currently besetting my country, Rwanda. Many people learned of these events as they happened, unaware of their historical background and origin, or of the motives behind them.

However, many have asked why there was so much hatred and cruelty. Some would answer naively that it was the fault of the Rwandese army or of the Rwandese Government. Yet the actual reality is different, more complex, less easy to grasp from the outside. It is deeply rooted in the subconscious of every Rwandese and in the collective memory of an entire people." Source author: Petru Dumitriu <PetruD@diplomacy.edu>

@Marie, Andrej: interpreters --- I cannot speak on behalf of UN interpreters, either. Nevertheless, I can better imagine how it is done in official meetings.

With no intention to underestimate the difficulty of the job, I have to say that, in most of the situations, the language used in resolutions, reports, declarations etc. is repetitive, standard, simple, and clear.

The context is very well known by professional interpreters who do the job on a permanent basis.

It is very rare that someone comes with language that is too sophisticated. Almost everything is in general connected with the Charter, a Convention, a previous resolution, a(Conference) Outcome document. Also, the majority of speakers are not native English speakers. Their language is more accessible.

Even the rights of reply, which are usually more colorful, are repetitive. The exchanges between India and Pakistan, on Kashmir, between Armenia and Azerbaijan on Nagorno-Karabakh, Japan and South Korea on "sex slaves" / "comfort women" (by the way, which one is better if you want to convince the audience?) are always the same!

UN was awarded the Peace Nobel Prize, but it has no chance for the Nobel Prize in Literature. :)

Source author: Petru Dumitriu PetruD@diplomacy.edu

Very tiring... --- I can't speak on behalf of UN translators but working as Chinese-Serbian-English translator while living China, I can confirm that it's very tiring as it basically boils down to 'deconstructing' one world that comes with one language and 'reconstructing' it as a new world in another language while trying to preserve and convey the main message.

Not to mention how I'd always end up hungry during official dinners - both parties would eat while I'd be translating their words to the other side, but there was no such break for me being the middle man.:)

Source author: Andrej Skrinjaric andrejs@diplomacy.edu

Thansk for this example Desiree... --- ...in Serbian there is a different connotation in these two options - "Do you understand me?" ("Da li si me razumeo") is a request for confirmation to be sure we are both on the same page. However, "Did I make myself clear?" ("Da li sam jasan?") is a form of not-so-vague threat meaning we expect the other side to do exactly what we asked/told them without questioning.

Source author: Andrej Skrinjaric andrejs@diplomacy.edu

Parent-speak --- Speaking from experience, Marie?! Interesting to note that both you and Blanca's comments pick up on the patronising tone of Biden's comments here, with goodies, baddies and warnings of the naughty step!

Source author: Biljana Scott biscott@diplomacy.edu

The deniability tightrope! --- Indeed, this is a topic worthy of a thesis or book, how we balance between intentionally misleading others and plausible deniability: contextual, cultural and personality factors all come into play!

Source author: Biljana Scott biscott@diplomacy.edu

Apologies! --- My intention was not to promote any journals but to offer a relevant article. Many journals offer a limited number of articles for free every month and this is what I was using as I browsed - I hope you can do the same.

Source author: Biljana Scott biscott@diplomacy.edu

Thank you Liliana for this great example... --- ...of perlocutionary force of language in international relations!

Source author: Andrej Skrinjaric andrejs@diplomacy.edu

Problem with metaphors.... --- ...is something we'll discuss later in the course, but in this particular example, please note that the 'carrot and the stick' metaphor requires us to make a distinction between persuasion and manipulation.

The metaphor (as well as Dante's allegory you mention) imply that the reword/carrot/fruit remains out of reach the whole time, i.e., the 'donkey' never gets the reward. This sounds better suited for describing 'manipulation' where one side uses all means at their disposal to get what they want, without any attention being paid to what the other side (the 'donkey') wants or needs.

'Persuasion' on the other hand has less negative implications, as we can also persuade someone to do something that is good for them, e.g. parents persuading children to eat broccoli.

Source author: Andrej Skrinjaric andrejs@diplomacy.edu

Maybe even holograms? --- Your comment Blanca reminded me of Star Wars movies where people communicate using 3d holograms, and I also think this is probably what waits us down the road.

The emojis, filters, layers and other 'gimmiks' social media use today are a far cry from the needs you mention, but are probably a step in the right direction.

Source author: Andrej Skrinjaric andrejs@diplomacy.edu

Personal connections --- I would agree with Desiree....having a concrete and validated information from the ground (still) can't be replaced with information gathered via internet, especially knowing how much fake news there are out there on the net.

Another important element is the fact that only via 'real work' one can establish personal connection which may prove to be crucial in certain situations down the road. I'm sure all of you who have been in the diplomatic service long enough could share examples of personal connections between diplomats from two (opposing) sides helping overcome an obstacle in negotiations, etc.

If free to share such examples, please do it here.

Source author: Andrej Skrinjaric andrejs@diplomacy.edu

It is refusal --- The guest said an irrelevant answer. If he even said that he had a lot of work today, it would be also a polite example of saying excuse. It means that he refused the offer with clear words which explains he was not interested in the cup of coffee. In our culture there is a similar story. "A person goes to a neighbour's house and asked the neighbour to lend him a shovel. The neighbour replied his cow is sick. The man asked what it matters to the shovel? The neighbour replied 'if you understand I have already made you the excuse'.

Source author: Mohammad Daud Mahmoody dauodmahmoody@gmail.com

Adding to --- my former comment (understanding the Lesson content better), "sorry" in this first instance, is an attempt to address the situation without taking responsibility for it which is the illocutionary force. The second "sorry" is an attempt to deflect from the dowing of a plane to illegally entering China's airspace - the deflection is the illocutionary force.<br /> "Sorry seems to be the hardest word!" Song by Elton John, 1976 Definitely in diplomatic incidents!!!

Source author: Marie Betts-Johnson mbj@ipicalifornia.com

"we would respond" --- That's an ambiguous statement...what does that mean, how would the US respond? It's akin to telling a child not to do something or they will be put in "time out." A challenge to any kid to prove their parent wrong!

Source author: Marie Betts-Johnson mbj@ipicalifornia.com

Biden's utterances --- HIs utterances can be understood as a comittment but with a disclaimer and conditions. He has given himself wiggle room to enforce 'plausible deniability' should he need to.

Source author: Mamta Reid liveandsmile@hotmail.com

Nerd warning! --- Maybe this course should come with a warning that it will seriously damage your popularity ;)

Source author: Biljana Scott biscott@diplomacy.edu

Un-PC but good EG --- Agreed, Blanca! By 'cultures' I have both professional and gender cultures in mind, and the way that they are seen from the outside.

This joke is very un Politically Correct but offers a good illustration (1) of performatives inaction and (2) of how readily performatives play into stereotypes and misunderstandings.

Source author: Biljana Scott biscott@diplomacy.edu

Our attitudes to pronouns are changing --- Of course there are lady diplomats! In this joke, one could argue that the contrast between genders adds to the joke's impact. Try it out using 'she' in both cases and you will find the distinction gets blurred.

In other contexts, the use of the masculine pronoun has been used as a default pronoun for centuries, a convention that has been questioned in the last few decades because of its tendency to perpetuate male primacy.

Source author: Biljana Scott biscott@diplomacy.edu

Carrots and Sticks --- Your acknowledgement, Andrej, of the carrot on a stick image is greatly appreciated. This metaphor has provided a derivative metaphor of “carrot or stick”. The “carrot on a stick” carries the meaning and clear implication of “persuasion”. However, this “carrot” is an inducement that is impossible to realize

Visualize a donkey-drawn cart where the driver dangles the carrot on the end of a stick towards which the donkey continues to trudge interminably.

Few writers have depicted this image in words so well as Dante Alighieri in his Divine Comedy. Part II is set in the seventh circle of Purgatory where the gluttonous must starve in sight of unreachable fruit hanging from trees above them. In my circumstance it would probably be chocolate-covered fruit.

The “carrot or stick” metaphor has become the popular choice of contemporary language. It implies both a positive inducement of the carrot and the negative consequence of the stick; specifically, the stick is employed if the carrot does not induce a behavioral change that conforms with the directed goals.

There are all sticks and no carrots in the first two parts of Dante’s Divine Comedy. Part III of the Comedy is where we enjoy reading of the divine fruit attained through the soul’s journey to Paradise.

Source author: John D. Hipsley jhipsley@igc.org

Can you imagine --- what it's like for UN Interpreters when translating messages steeped in contextual interpretations?

Source author: Marie Betts-Johnson mbj@ipicalifornia.com

in this statement --- the letter is just acknowledging mishap happened but to taking responsibility.

Source author: MacOswald Jumali macjumali@yahoo.com

I think --- the guest has refused.

Source author: MacOswald Jumali macjumali@yahoo.com

I can as well believe that --- if interlocutors are none native speakers, they can can be communicating a different meaning but once they have consensus and derive similar meaning from the utterances, then the communication is still taking place.

Source author: MacOswald Jumali macjumali@yahoo.com

2.... --- I join both President Bush and Secretary of State Powell in wishing the Chinese people and the family of Captain Li fortitude and strength during this unfortunate accident.

We are sorry that the aircraft may have entered China’s airspace without the necessary clearance, but we are very pleased that the crew are safe and we anticipate their immediate return back to their families.

Source author: Hervé Pool erve619@gmail.com

It's me not you --- This made me think about a frequent conversation in Mexico that it is usually related to good manners, but may also be considered into this context. In Spanish, in formal environments, you are always adviced to say "Did I make myself clear?" (ie. "¿me explico?") insted of "Did you understand me?" (ie. "¿me entiendes?"). I find really interesting how these two ways of posing the question change completely the "responsibility" of succesfully conveying a message from the speaker to the audience.

Source author: Desirée Colomé Menéndez dcolome@sre.gob.mx

It should be --- husband and wife!

Source author: MacOswald Jumali macjumali@yahoo.com

Good question Daud --- Another new dimension of diplomacy in response to your question is exchanges between Sates and multinational corporations. It is evident now that some of these companies have wielded more power than the States and have income more than GDPs of rich countries, and there actions have effect on the nations, for instance, Facebook and affiliated Apps (WhatsApp and Instagram) outage on October 4, 2021. This among others things have seen spawning of diplomatic missions in Silicon Valley to conduct diplomacy with Big Tech companies. So in as much as it is not implicitly stated but the diplomats in whatever form they exist in the valley conduct conversations with the none state entities there which help to shape policy in sending States..

Source author: MacOswald Jumali macjumali@yahoo.com

A controversial issue for countries as well --- They do matter

In Mexico, as in many other countries, there is an on going discussion if countries that have colonialised other countries doing it in an aggressive and non respectfully matter.... this is an aspect hard to understand by many people but for those that have suffered from the wrong doing is not

Source author: Blanca Jimenez bjimenez@sre.gob.mx

It is not an apology --- The president and the minister should have addressed the China government

Source author: Blanca Jimenez bjimenez@sre.gob.mx

I am sorry but --- It seems to me the message conveyed is "I am sorry ....but I will be telling you what are the only things I am willing and be doing as I consider that this is enough for what had happen...".

Source author: Blanca Jimenez bjimenez@sre.gob.mx

What has not been said --- I'd say yes, through the countries that we intentionally named and as well talking about "bad" guys as being good or bad is not very specific it depends on each one moral

Source author: Blanca Jimenez bjimenez@sre.gob.mx

in a clear threat --- For me it is the context that makes it clear this is a real threat

Source author: Blanca Jimenez bjimenez@sre.gob.mx

a warning that later could be reshaped --- A warning to China, made in such a way that it can later be clarified in a more "convenient" way

Source author: Blanca Jimenez bjimenez@sre.gob.mx

Comment to the course organisation --- I am surprised that to get some of the provided text you need to pay. In some countries this could be interpreted that there is a promotion of some kind of "journals"....

Source author: Blanca Jimenez bjimenez@sre.gob.mx

Not only Daud.... --- ...as nonverbal includes different forms of communication such as body language, facial expressions, signalling, etc.

The unsaid here refers more to the difference between locution and illocution, i.e., what was meant by what was said, but also to the choice of words to express certain idea/message, or a deliberate omission of something/someone from an utterance. E.g., not mentioning someone when thanking people who have helped you achieve something is a clear indication of your view how that person did not help you at all, i.e., you convey the message without actually expressing anything, etc.

Source author: Andrej Skrinjaric andrejs@diplomacy.edu

Could not agree more Mamta... --- ...with your statement that we should use both approaches and not restrict to one or another in our daily communication! Language and communication are 'live things' that evolve all the time depending on who it is that we communicate with (friend, family, colleagues, strangers, partners, etc.), why (to get information, to persuade, to present ourselves as experts in certain area, to manipulate, etc.) and how (informally over dinner, at a businesses meeting, via phone, emails/texts, etc.) that it's hard to find one 'winning formulae' that could be used as a pattern for all these different situations.

Source author: Andrej Skrinjaric andrejs@diplomacy.edu

using the others for our own purposes.. --- It is also about of what people want to hear

Source author: Blanca Jimenez bjimenez@sre.gob.mx

And let us know what... --- ...was the reaction to you using this as an answer Mamta!:)

Source author: Andrej Skrinjaric andrejs@diplomacy.edu

Gender aspects --- It also reflects the way in which men think women think

Source author: Blanca Jimenez bjimenez@sre.gob.mx

The way in which the question is presented --- I think that the host did not put a clear question . At least for me , the question is not a direct invitation then is not that sure that the host wants to have you tomorrow with him/her having coffee

Source author: Blanca Jimenez bjimenez@sre.gob.mx

Persuasion illustration... --- ...you provided in this infographic John, is my absolute favourite.:)

Source author: Andrej Skrinjaric andrejs@diplomacy.edu

I agree --- I also think that as firs impression it is a refusal

Source author: Blanca Jimenez bjimenez@sre.gob.mx

hesitation or being timid --- Either he/she really did not know what to do or did not want to be impolite

Source author: Blanca Jimenez bjimenez@sre.gob.mx

Define 'easiest' Herve:) --- Lies may be the easy way out providing they are not blow, but once out in the clear, the damage control to cover/justify/spin/reframe a lie usually takes much more effort than denying or confirming an ambiguous statement...does it not?

Source author: Andrej Skrinjaric andrejs@diplomacy.edu

Future tools for electronic communication? --- I think that in the future "Zoom tools" will evolve to include body language. Twitter and its moji has started to do so. This is simply a human need and most probably technology will respond to it

Source author: Blanca Jimenez bjimenez@sre.gob.mx

Example, please --- Reading your HT for the first time, I was a bit taken aback with your comment about how it's better for women to use silent language as it goes against my firm belief in gender equality. Then I paused and realised that it may indeed be a better tactic in 'certain situation' i.e., when the context favours such approach.

Could you please share examples (for your own career if possible, without disclosing any names or other sensitive information, of course) of situations when you as a professional female diplomat gained advantage by resorting to a 'silent language'?

The call for examples is also open to other participants too!

Source author: Andrej Skrinjaric andrejs@diplomacy.edu

Thank's John for taking the time... --- ...to prepare the infographic!

As for the transfer of ideas across time and space, I'd also like to add a third dimension that we may call 'worlds' or 'mindsets', be it cultural (think of classics from different cultures) or personal, as language (both verbal and written) always represent one's specific views and outlooks.

Source author: Andrej Skrinjaric andrejs@diplomacy.edu

True as that is Marie... --- ....it doesn't mean that we, as humans, are capable of not just understanding, but also applying both approaches when one of them suits us better, regardless of the (pre)dominant cultural matrix we adopted. (Take, for example, courtship in low-context cultures that is usually very contextual).

So, while the intercultural differences can explain certain situations and misunderstanding, they should be be used as excuses, or presented as insurmountable obstacles. Or, to help myself with a proverb (another highly contextual use of words in low-profile cultures too) - 'Where there's a will, there's a way'.:)

Source author: Andrej Skrinjaric andrejs@diplomacy.edu

"Vodi svojim primerom" in Serbian... --- ....has similar meaning but can be translated as 'Guide with your example' (i.e., actions). Does the focus on 'example/action' mean that Serbs have inherited mistrust towards words and their power?:)

Source author: Andrej Skrinjaric andrejs@diplomacy.edu

IO involve in science diplomacy --- My example is the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO). CTBT is more an actor of science diplomacy because of tis initiatives in enhancing synergies between science and diplomacy for peace. One of its Executive Secretary, Dr Lassina ZERBO initiated the CTBT Science and Technology Conferences since 2011, attracting over 1000 scientists, experts, academia and civil society from around 100 countries to discuss science and diplomacy related to the nuclear test ban. It can also be a venue for science diplomacy to take place as the members states are meeting regularly

Source author: Désiré NEBOUA dneboua@yahoo.fr

Response to George: Open Access --- George, that's a great addition I haven't thought about, when we concluded on our findings and found patterns of actions that aimed for access. It was more in the sense of: someone wants to get access to e.g. natural resources (like a volcano, the Arctic etc.) to do research on sediments, to do core drilling , to investigate into specimen etc.). And this requires diplomatic actions in the first place, including solving issues of extracting data from regions/populations abroad (I could ramble on here).

Another question you raise with regard to the open access movement in science should be discussed by us on Friday. I find many threads in this discussion to be very superficial and too bróad to make sense when concretely applied. I'll explain on Friday...

Source author: Tim Flink tim.flink@hu-berlin.de

Re: SESAME --- Whether SESAME is a great example of scientific collaboration is to be told by the future. So far, not a single group composed of scientists from partly very antagonistic states including Palestine, Israel, Iran, and Pakistan have actually jointly used the synchrotron facility in Allan/Jordan. If you want to read more about SESAME, we have written the first scientific paper on it, which was backed by epxert interviews and us going to Amman and Allan to do ethnographic research on it: https://open-research-europe.ec.europa.eu/articles/1-51/v1?src=rss

Nevertheless, SESAME can still unfold its potential, and we should not forget that the actual running of this facility (start of operations by the end of 2017) is still very young.

Source author: Tim Flink tim.flink@hu-berlin.de

Re: Health researchers cooperation --- This is a highly valuable statement, and it ties in with what Vid Nukala previously posted on neo-colonialism. There is greater concern nowadays in science policy and research funding about how to prevent neo-colonial dependency structures within cross-border scientific collaborations, especially when researchers and institutions from developed states collaborate with researchers from less developed states. The good news is that there is only little up to no evidence that e.g. international co-publications disfavour scientific authors from less developed countries (I think you all know that authorship orders greatly matter for scientific reputation). Moreover, publication output and impact (in terms of citations) from less developed countries have risen during the last years. But in general, there is only little empirical knowledge to back or refute statements about neo-colonialism in international science collaborations.

Source author: Tim Flink tim.flink@hu-berlin.de

Response: Are there diplomats who defend global interests? --- Patrick,

a puzzling comment that may be worth writing a book about. I think we can distinguish between actors, in this case scientists, that have all the human properties other people also have, and this may include patriotic attitudes, a national-orientation and cultural ties to their region of origin. We can also see that due to the increasing if not almost entire dependency of modern science on third party funding from national governmental or business sources, there will be sth. like national interests. But that does not mean that the actual scientific knowledge flows across borders, by ways of communicating via publications and citations, by evaluations, and cross-border third party projects (bilateral and multilateral consortia) cannot happen at the same time. Would you agree with this?

Source author: Tim Flink tim.flink@hu-berlin.de

Unpacking diplomatic skills --- I really appreciate your call to be more specific about what we mean by diplomatic skills, Mouloud. Melchor's overview that we draw on here seems to take some things for granted. Veronica also mentioned negotiation skills in another comment. And to build on your thought, I would challenge the assumption that these skills are by definition absent in non-diplomats.

Source author: Katharina Höne KatharinaH@diplomacy.edu

State sponsored scientist --- Thank you all for reacting to my questions .As per Tim explanation on hidden political agenda of some scientists and the way they may influence international discussions and decisions on a specific topic such as climate change I think we can identify them as "State Sponsored Scientists"

Source author: Souhila Amazouz souhila_amazouz@yahoo.fr

Fair&happy world --- Efrat , I don't understand what is the problem in having a fair word even though as adults we see that is not easy to achieve but at least let us dream about it ! How to explain politicians that spend their time talking about values , ethical use of technology justice and respect of human rights may feel uncomfortable about fair world and equal opportunities to all while it is just the results of all what they are advocating for !

Source author: Souhila Amazouz souhila_amazouz@yahoo.fr

Non Technological & non state actos --- Thank you Efrat and Tim for taking time to respond to this HT , indeed non sates actors involvement in national and international dialogues is not limited to Tech companies although the later continue facilitating communications , interactions and outreach. In my opinion Governments are loosing space as they lack the technical know how in some areas and also due the globalization that empowered new actors and affected the balance of economic power in the world. While global companies are expanding their markets local and small business in developing countries struggle to survive and even though we see an increasing awareness of non sates actors not all of them are invited to the table to talk !

Source author: Souhila Amazouz souhila_amazouz@yahoo.fr

Technology & diplomacy --- Can we say that science diplomacy is motivated by the high acceleration of technology advancements and the increasing dependencies of sates that require close cooperation to balance between national and common interests such as safeguarding the earth and the sea from pollution

Source author: Souhila Amazouz souhila_amazouz@yahoo.fr

This is definitely diplomacy --- I am not a diplomat, but I believe creating a positive image in the international is one of the important jobs for diplomats. The science diplomacy in this angle is close to competition in a positive circulation for the whole partners move forward steps.

Source author: YingChu Chen jungheng@gmail.com

Social network --- Social network platforms can help the government to promote and influence the public. I can see some diplomats on Twitter to promote their diplomacy actions, for example, some countries donate vaccines to other countries this year.

Source author: YingChu Chen jungheng@gmail.com

It takes time. --- I agree with the evidence-based policymaking and decision. But how long can you wait for the evidence? Before the election, or maybe ten to twenty years to see the result. Do politicians have patients to wait for the social experiment?

Source author: YingChu Chen jungheng@gmail.com

privileges --- Carlos, I would say, it is more than a fallacy, it is ideology.

Source author: Katharina Höne KatharinaH@diplomacy.edu

I prefer cross-border cooperation --- This sentence makes me feel more comfortable and less political element. And 'across borders' makes me think people want to achieve the same goal together.

Source author: YingChu Chen jungheng@gmail.com

science policy interface outcome --- I think we need "evidence-based" decision making to be the outcome of the science policy interface. The need of scientific evidence to support policy and decision making has been re-illustrated by the COVID pandemic and will be inevitable for future crisis including climate

Source author: George Thomas georgethomasdesk@gmail.com

Example of appointment of science attachés in France diplomatic missions in USA --- Here you can have an example of France science diplomacy actors in USA (Sorry in French)

https://france-science.com/lequipe-de-la-mission-scientifique-et-technologie-de-washington/

Source author: Désiré NEBOUA dneboua@yahoo.fr

Appointment of science attachés --- Obviously, strategic interests guided by a vision at the highest level usually guide the appointment of scientific attachés to embassies. At the same time, we note that some developing countries, for financial reasons, do not hesitate to reduce the number of embassy staff.

Source author: Désiré NEBOUA dneboua@yahoo.fr

Science and technology --- We must differentiate science from technology. Science is the understanding of an aspect of the universe and is therefore apolitical since the universe is neutral towards human interests. Technology is the use of scientific knowledge to modify reality based on our interests. Newton's equations to explain the workings of gravity is science and is independent of human interests. The use of these equations to design a ballistic projectile is technology and depends entirely on these interests.

Source author: Carlos Arturo Garcia Bonilla carlos.garcia@cancilleria.gov.co

Attaché --- Defense attaché also exist. Health attaché more recently in diplomatic missions in developed countries but less in developing countries. Considering their advisory role in diplomatic missions , can we also call them scientific advisors?

Source author: Désiré NEBOUA dneboua@yahoo.fr

Science is apolitic, scientis are not --- Scientists are human and therefore prone to the biases and interests of any human. Furthermore, although scientific knowledge is apolitical, the use of this knowledge is not.

Source author: Carlos Arturo Garcia Bonilla carlos.garcia@cancilleria.gov.co

A fruitful mistake --- In Spanish the most widely used term is "diplomacia científica" which is imprecise since this means "scientific diplomacy". The correct term would be "Diplomacia de la ciencia". "This imprecision, however, can be fruitful as it invites us to consider a new perspective: the exercise of diplomacy through the use of scientific tools. This perspective is very little considered in traditional studies where science and diplomacy are separated. It does not necessarily have to be this way and the use of scientific tools in diplomacy does not It is only useful, but necessary. An example might be the use of game theory in negotiations. Game theory is a scientific tool that is widely taught in negotiation courses. Before game theory, what was taught in these courses was a set of heuristic rules based on subjective experiences. It was taught, for example, that to negotiate with a Latin American it was necessary to start by talking about soccer or things like that which, as is evident, had no scientific basis. I think it is important not only to define what science diplomacy is, but what it should be. From this point of view, scientific diplomacy should also be the use of scientific tools in the exercise of diplomacy and of scientific criteria in decision-making.

Source author: Carlos Arturo Garcia Bonilla carlos.garcia@cancilleria.gov.co

To gather for a scientific goal --- Because the role that science diplomacy can play in foreign policy as suggested by the examples mentioned on the article. Scientific collaborations can gather for a common goal and around common values, so that initiate positive relations and improve public opinion, within the US and outside the country. As the authors said, a positive image of the US is essential to support American influence and ability to implement policy. In addition, science is often seen as a neutral ground detached from politics, with a more genuine purpose, an interesting point at a time when US political decisions and military actions were not supported by global public opinion

Source author: Aura Fossati aura.fossati@gmail.com

Privileges --- People accustomed to privilege tend to consider that they deserve those privileges and, therefore, to consider that the world is fair and that people in conditions of vulnerability also deserve their plight. This, of course, is a fallacy

Source author: Carlos Arturo Garcia Bonilla carlos.garcia@cancilleria.gov.co

Scientific Norms Are Idealistic & Fall Short in Reality... --- While the majority of researchers pursue science for its own sake, scientists are human and therefore fallible (when the motivation becomes money, fame and/or power). This plays out in different theatres: limited funding, limited access to phd, postdoctoral and academic positions, perverse incentive of 'publish or perish', inadequate diversity and equity at all levels but particularly in leadership positions, nations and regions competing for S&T prominence and influence, Global North exploiting Global South for plant/animal/human samples and data while depriving them of access to technologies and benefits...

The norms are aspirational and should continue to guide us, but bearing in mind the deficits thus far...

Source author: Vid Nukala Vid.Nukala@gmail.com

Parachute science --- Historically, scientific advances have played an important role in conceptualizing and making the colonial project a reality, with extractive scientific practices for centuries, for instance in the case of zoology, botany, geology, paleontology and archaeology, where collected specimens were brought back to imperial capitals to be studied or displayed there. But this kind of asymmetrical approaches still exist today, e.g. with the so called parachute science, where researchers from the Global North carry out field research in a third country, usually in the Global South and then return to their own country without involving researchers from the host country. It is indeed a question of power imbalances, for instance an unequal access to funding can be a key barrier that leads to some issues such as prioritizing certain agendas over others, neglecting the needs of low- and middle-income countries, the misrepresentation in research contributions and authorship, ethics dumping. Science diplomacy can be a very interesting tool to promote and foster meaningful collaborations, more fair and equal research practices based on mutual benefits. See a recent article on parachute science in marine research :

https://www.cell.com/action/showPdf?pii=S0960-9822%2821%2900062-2

Source author: Aura Fossati aura.fossati@gmail.com

Scientists --- Thanks Patricia for your point on exchange programs. I came to Germany many years ago through the DAAD exchange program. After my degree was complete, I not only contributed to the research activities but bridged the bilateral research communities for stronger collaboration.

Source author: George Thomas georgethomasdesk@gmail.com

Re: how scientists are involved in diplomacy --- A great thread of discussion, and from my empirical observation I would back all responses that the interplay with/actions of science in international relations (and I don't just mean internat. political relations) can take all of these forms.

This makes it even harder for us to clearly distinguish what science diplomacy is, as we might even extend it to 'diplomatic' behaviour in conversations between academic staff (in the sense that you are expressing/broaching issues in a candid, mild, euphemistic, concealed and influencing way).

Not least, we should not forget that many so called scientific authors in the field of science diplomacy follow a hidden entrepreneurial/political agenda. So, there is a lot of self-adulation by (official) scientists to be relevant actors in science diplomacy for marketing reason.

Source author: Tim Flink tim.flink@hu-berlin.de

Re: Non State Actors and diplomacy --- Excellent response, Souhila! What else might explain the rise and relevance of non-state actors in the international sphere, other than or related to technology and technological topics?

• Is the world more socially networked nowadays?
• Do we see greater public awareness, i.e. everything that happens locally can be made public globally and cause effects?
• Is there greater emancipation among non-state actors to engage in political issues?
• Are state governments gaining more or less competences to take care of societal issues?
• Hpw does agencification, i.e. the outsourcing of state-competences to quasi-/non-state actors, relate to the afore-raised question?

Source author: Tim Flink tim.flink@hu-berlin.de

Common problems --- I think that nations will more readily collaborate when they face the same problems such as climate, health, insecurity including terrorism.

Source author: Désiré NEBOUA dneboua@yahoo.fr

Science for diplomacy --- Here we are refering to how we can use diplomats support or diplomatic tools/tactics such as negociation to facilitate cooperation among scientists. Because scientist need to negociate sometimes so they can benefit support from diplomats.

Source author: Désiré NEBOUA dneboua@yahoo.fr

SD? --- Difficult to tell that one of them best describe science diplomacy but their association best describe science diplomacy. For example, the 2nd and the 3rd refer to traditionnal diplomacy

Source author: Désiré NEBOUA dneboua@yahoo.fr

Interpersonal skills, diplomatic skills --- Even though they might be included in general "communication skills", let's be specific about so-called "diplomatic skills": developed interpersonal skills, tactful and respectful communication, showing compassion and empathy, analytical temperament, emotional intelligence, attention to detail, problem-solving, and often the ability to manage a difficult situation without upsetting anyone...

Source author: Mouloud Khelif mouloud.khelif@gmail.com

Non state actors --- In addition to Ginger's question, Do we look at these as non-science and non-diplomat actors that are essentially involved in shaping the public opinion on policies? How do we accommodate these in the processes of science diplomacy?

Source author: Kiconco Patricia kictricia@gmail.com

WHO - venue for diplomacy --- In terms of WHO serving as a venue for diplomacy, the World Health Assembly comes to mind as the prime example.

Source author: Katharina Höne KatharinaH@diplomacy.edu

scientists in diplomatic negotiations --- I'm tempted to say: well it depends what you mean by diplomacy. I guess you mean interstate negotiations or what could be considered 'traditional diplomacy', Souhila. Three areas come to mind: (a) advising within the foreign ministry (by being seconded for example), being part the national delegation of a country (the climate change negotiations, COP, are a great example), and serving as science attachés (we discuss this further down in the text). What do others think, anything missing from my ad-hoc typology here?

Source author: Katharina Höne KatharinaH@diplomacy.edu

science and politics ... --- That's a great question, Kiconco. It goes to the heart of the debate around science diplomacy. The authors take the view that science itself is neutral and should remain outside of politics. Other perspective would really question this: First, they would say that science itself is not neutral. One simple example is that not everything worth studying gets studied. Sometimes there are social, political, and funding barriers. In that sense science is not outside of society. Second, Lord and Turekian highlight how scientists can be put in the service of US diplomacy. They talk about soft power and creating understanding and better relations. But other would say that this idea of putting scientists in the service of diplomatic goals might also have us question the neutrality of the idea of science diplomacy.

Source author: Katharina Höne KatharinaH@diplomacy.edu

social vs "hard" sciences --- Definitely a good point @Tereza. Indeed, as a complement to "natural sciences", social sciences like sociology, economics, anthropology, history, political science and even philosophy are needed as multiple lenses of the sciences in order to better inform the diplomatic process. They also open more avenues for collaboration and relations between countries.

Source author: Mouloud Khelif mouloud.khelif@gmail.com

Common good -- who represents the global good? --- Effrat and Vid -- thanks for these points. I'd like to read more discussion on this. Diplomacy is traditionally a process between states, and now includes other stakeholders. Who represents the global common good? UN members are States. Does the weight of the global common good rest solely upon the shoulders of the UN Secretary-General, as the embodiment of the UN?

Source author: Ginger Paque ginger@paque.org

Science, politics, diplomacy and even religion --- Religious politics, policy, and science have clashed since we tried to decide why volcanos erupted, who or what made thunder, and whether it was possible to placate the gods/God. The Catholic Church had (in)famous policies regarding the universe and physics which Newton and Gallileo's work demonstrated. Science (evolution) and health (vaccinations) are still controversial on these and other points. Where do these fit in Science Diplomacy? No matter the stand of science on these issues, these are situations we encounter. How and where are they properly addressed?

Source author: Ginger Paque ginger@paque.org

Science, science attachés, diplomacy, and politics --- I am not clear on the overlap between science and diplomacy, and even less on what, for lack of a better word, I will call 'politics'.

In the case of COVID-19 and science attachés, it seems the attachés should be scientists, facilitating science, much as commercial attachés facilitate business relationships.

Where is the diplomatic process around the necessary research to study the origin of COVID-19 taking place? In this case, it seems to my uneducated eye that diplomacy and 'politics' are possibly/probaby interfering in this process. Where does this fit in the Royal Society and AAAS framework?

In our times, this seems to be critical for other areas as well (climate change). Where does this fit. I have another question about religion/politics/diplomacy that I'll post separately. Thanks for your input.

Source author: Ginger Paque ginger@paque.org

Really? --- I would consider science diplomacy as an activity of public interest, and I am skeptical about branding/marketing to be a necessary skill. I would have listed Conviction and Commitment as necessary soft skills instead, with a less commercial and marketing flavour.

Source author: Patrick Furrer Patrick.furrer@smartfree.ch

Widespread or US specific? --- I learned about public diplomacy thanks to this first course module. I am wondering whether some other states are pursuing such public diplomacy objectives, if there is some research about it, or if this is more like a specificity of the US government...

Source author: Patrick Furrer Patrick.furrer@smartfree.ch

Multilateral Activities and Policies are Necessary --- The underlying hypothesis of these definitions is that state actors have the power of making things change. I am wondering about the engagement of science diplomacy with respect to impacting of multinational organizations...

Source author: Patrick Furrer Patrick.furrer@smartfree.ch

Are there diplomats who defend global interests? --- How can scientists be considering themselves as involved in serving the promotion of national interests if the science they do does not have any national frontiers?

Source author: Patrick Furrer Patrick.furrer@smartfree.ch

Common ground --- It definitely seems to be a step in the right direction to foster understanding and more collaboration. It is fundamental to agree on certain terms and domains in order to move forward. The US/Euro-Atlantic and the Chinese-Russian Approaches need to meet in some common ground in order to work together towards protecting the whole international community, and avoid cyberattacks due to the ambiguity in terminology and whatever is permitted because of the differences in what the other understands as information security and cybersecurity.

Source author: Jorge Ernesto Salcido Zugasti jsalcido@sre.gob.mx

No freedom --- Yes Eduardo, I even wonder if we can talk of "online freedom" at all as every movement on the web is been tracked by someone else.

Source author: Jorge Ernesto Salcido Zugasti jsalcido@sre.gob.mx

POST-BREXIT COVID --- The use of virtual technologies to trace COVID infections have been used in different countries with diverse results. Yet, in some cases, it has been a bit extreme, like in Ireland, where, in order to go to the North (UK) you had to quarantine in the South for a few days, so if you travel from other countries, you have to do double quarantine, first in the South and then in Northern Ireland. The governments of both regions trace where you were through the use of your mobile phone, making your travelling quite an experience.

Source author: Jorge Ernesto Salcido Zugasti jsalcido@sre.gob.mx

thank you for completing my entry --- Hi asoke, Thank you for your contribution to complete my entry. What I would like to highlight from the link is the weight that companies are giving to the cybersecurity per se. I strongly believe that cybersecurity should start with the user, at the end we are the weakest link of the chain. Is possible to find free material about information security and boosted by companies will help to reach those who think the cybersecurity is matter just of big companies.

Source author: Alan Kaheri Chavez Castro itsupportirl@sre.gob.mx

Good question, --- Alan. This point is related to how cybersecurity is perceived. Our HT chat so far has focused on the infrastructure of cyberspace that needs to be secured. This includes the fibre optic cables that transport data, the installations (critical national infrastructure) that applies data, the devices that transmit and receive data etc. We have also considered the security of what goes inside data packets as they are transported, i.e. the need to transport such data with integrity and "privacy". This leads into the dimension of "human rights" in cyberspace. One issue is whether a single entity (like a corporation) can ensure the security of the entire cybersecurity ecosystem, or does it need cooperation between stakeholders that use cyberspace, which includes governments, civil society, academia and corporations?

Source author: Asoke Mukerji asokem@diplomacy.edu

it has been used for long time --- Encryption has been used as a security method to protect sensitive data. In my experience as a software developer encryption play a fundamental role in how information go through the components and make the data have integrity and confidentiality.

Source author: Iván Arnulfo Fernández Hernández administracionini01@sre.gob.mx

all in one --- People/Systems, the data is processing by the systems creating "information", this information is consumed by the people. both side are connected and related. it should be just one focus.

Source author: Iván Arnulfo Fernández Hernández administracionini01@sre.gob.mx

15% of the IoT devices remain with the default credentials --- @Castro - Knowledge is power.- if you are now aware of this anomaly, why would you not change your password instead of allowing access to your device without your consent? One of the basic rules regarding illegal access to one's device is to have a strong password and not use birthdays, date of birth, pest names etc...thus if you are aware of these facts, simply make the necessary adjustments instead of exposing oneself to be hacked? hence the need for cybersecurity awareness campaigns

Source author: Bennette Thomas thomasb@dominica.gov.dm

political understanding --- The expansion of views and inclusion of new terms in the National Cyber Strategy will not only reduce the gap in political understanding but also will make reformations from general (broad) to the narrow (specific), such as "online malign", "information campaign", and also "non-state propaganda". Before we haven't seen such word combinations and their use together, but now we do. These new terms, word combinations underline new ideas, threats, and challenges for a new world we are bonded to - cyberspace.

Source author: Valerii Paziuk paziukvalerii@gmail.com

Disarmement --- I think talking disarmement had a limit in cybersecurity. Most of the arms or weapons in this area comes from intellectual ability or ressources. This means, it's include human physically.

Source author: Ioniarimalala RAKOTONIRINA ioniarimalala@gmail.com

Tools for blocking democracy --- The fact is most of countries use national cybersecurity to limit access to information and freedom of expression

Source author: Ioniarimalala RAKOTONIRINA ioniarimalala@gmail.com

Objective of international cooperation --- in cybersecurity is to strengthen global cyberspace, and I would agree with Bentom's comments in response to Valerii. Just recall that the main reason all of us are discussing cybersecurity today is this global framework, which countries unanimously identified as far back as 2000 (when adopting a UN General Assembly resolution on information and communication technologies) as the "further development of civilization, the expansion of opportunities for cooperation for the common good of all States, the enhancement of the creative potential of mankind and additional improvements in the circulation of information in the global community".

Source author: Asoke Mukerji asokem@diplomacy.edu

Curriculum development --- is the key, and I am glad you have identified it Vladimir. The kind of curricula that will replace the 19th and 20th century curricula in place across many countries, including developing countries, needs to be discussed and formulated through a transparent, interactive, public process in which different stakeholders can provide inputs. Would anyone in the class know where such public consultations are taking place/have taken place for developing curricula for education and capacity building in cyber technology issues?

Source author: Asoke Mukerji asokem@diplomacy.edu

New and old generation --- everyday more people is getting connected, from a smart phone, smart TV, video games, etc. Internet is now common among new generation, they don't know how was the life without internet. I remember back in days when I was in middle school I used to go to library to look up for information to do my homework, so right now if we need some information we just google it.

Source author: Iván Arnulfo Fernández Hernández administracionini01@sre.gob.mx

Cybersecurity vs censorship --- Vlad

Isnt the issue of an "open and free" Internet is really based on the political philosophy of the West vs East?

Source author: Bennette Thomas thomasb@dominica.gov.dm

Interconnectivity and IOT --- IOTs may not necessary mean that every device is connected to each but surely, it does incorporate that we are all connected digitally whether through networks, devices or otherwise; while my home and office devices may not be connected to Vlad's devices, it is possible technically that we get interconnected through the various networks and hence it a sense we are all "IOT devices or entities"

Source author: Bennette Thomas thomasb@dominica.gov.dm

legal instruments and the broad nature of cybersecurity issues --- Cybersecurity issues are indeed broad in scope. However, it is possible that diplomats, politicians, technical and IT experts can work collaboratively to deal with what all deem as a common threat to our digital existence?

Source author: Bennette Thomas thomasb@dominica.gov.dm

"global problems" --- @Valerri; As I read your comments, I was a bit confused yet I have tried to understand the rationale. On one hand you seem to suggest that staying disconnected from the Internet clearly prevents the issues of cybersecurity while it keeps these persons backward and "obsolete" to the present digital trend and services; However, getting them connected may highlight issues of poor infrastructure etc. for which Governments must work to bring their citizens to the latest technology and hence exposure to cybercrime issues. Isnt this the paradox that we live in? or should we continue to ensure that we include the necessary guard rails for entry while working with each other to develop standards and code of conduct?

Source author: Bennette Thomas thomasb@dominica.gov.dm

Pace of change --- Vlad/Scott

While I concur that technology is moving at a much faster pace that society, should society allow technology for the common good I assume without first looking at the guard rails

Source author: Bennette Thomas thomasb@dominica.gov.dm

Cybercrime convention --- Vlad

The Budapest Convention on Cybercrime is a very good start to dealing with the issue of cybercrime as we will all agree. Focusing on enhancing negotiations or developing technical and legal standards on cybercrime should not slow down or hinder the broader issues of cybersecurity as there are many focused groups which can work in parallel on some of the very issues emanating for the discussion on cybercrime. It may boil down to whether these is the legal and possibly political will to combat cybersecurity issues knowing some state actors may themselves wish to dominate the Internet

Source author: Bennette Thomas thomasb@dominica.gov.dm

Open internet --- Exactly! As a national hero and teacher at the beginning of the 20th century has said "I understand the world as a field for cultural competition among nations." (Goce Delcev). I believe we all have to accept the internet as a field for an open, cultural, advanced, technological or any other beneficial competition among nations/groups/individuals...Probably, nation-states and citizens have to accept that in 21st century it is impossible to preserve everything nations wanted to protect/preserve in 19th/20th century. Globalization, Internet, Migration need an open competition among all players. A Chinese or a Russian can as easy upload a Youtube video with different content (promoting their own values) as a "Western" citizen can. If we, as nations, or individuals, resist the obvious transformation of the global society (even in the cultural/moral/religious aspects) probably we will just face more problems and prolong the inevitable transformation of the global society (where all social and historical aspects are being transformed too).

Source author: Vladimir Nikolov vladimir984@yahoo.com

elevator pitch --- :) Probably all options are possible and paying the ransomers is certainly on the table. We had real experience (in the insurance industry) when private detectives and police officers were involved in luxurious vehicles thefts, only to offer insurers their "quick and successful" services for locating the vehicles. I'm wondering if somth. similar is possible with cybersecurity firms (first to hack you, and then offer you improved cybersecurity products/services) :).

Source author: Vladimir Nikolov vladimir984@yahoo.com

Tech vs Privacy --- Absolutely - the common good must prevail. I just give an example how privacy-pervasive new technology becomes. Probably we will know more about the implications in 2-3 years time, after we see who/how and for what reasons (corporate profit/state control/espionage/common good/medical reasons - improvement of common health) will gather and analyze vast amounts of private data gathered via IoT devices and wearables.

Source author: Vladimir Nikolov vladimir984@yahoo.com

global problems, are they really that "global"? --- On the other hand, if we speak about global problems of society we can discuss other different things. However, let's focus on cybersecurity and the internet in general. Not only in my opinion but also the opinion of a number of scientists, we believe that some states, some people don't want and don't need some "essential" things that people around the world have. For example, as you said in Africa, there is no need in some parts of Africa to be connected to the source, to the internet. If there is no connection, there are no cyberthreats, cyberattacks - so cybersecurity wouldn't be a problem at all. And it's not because of lack of knowledge or weak infrastructure, it's just simply because they don't need it, and they don't want it. Nevertheless, if we speak about some developed states in Africa, probably, the question of weak infrastructure or lack of knowledge should be concerned and discussed on a national level within authorities and scientists, and other populations. Government should engage people to work out this problem, and the aim should be to catch up and go along with the rest of the world.

Source author: Valerii Paziuk paziukvalerii@gmail.com

Education & Cybersecurity --- Again, as Ambassador Asoke and many course-participants mentioned, at the bottom line we come back to Education...cybersecurity skills, data-privacy skills, secure ways of using internet, encryption, child-protection online and so on are so needed in today's everyday life (as literacy and writing skills were in the previous centuries). Many of us will admit that we haven't handwritten a text for quite a long time (maybe only signing official documents) but we daily use keyboards or automatized speech to text tools....So ICT, computer and various cyber/encryption skills are urgently needed even from preschool age.

Source author: Vladimir Nikolov vladimir984@yahoo.com

Semantics and its scientific implications for sanity --- Your definition, Mohammad, is a useful approach to prompt our thinking about the discipline of semantics. Published in 1948 Alfred Korzybski proposed what was then a new understanding of semantics based on the training of the human nervous system.

His seminal text is entitled “Science and Sanity: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics” (4th edition, 1973, Institute of General Semantics).

In Korzybski’s introduction to the 2nd edition he writes:

“General semantics is not any ‘philosophy’, or ‘psychology’, or ‘logic’, in the ordinary sense: it is a new extensional discipline which explains and trains us how to use our nervous systems most efficiently. It is not a medical science, but like bacteriology, it is indispensable for medicine in general, and for psychiatry, mental hygiene, and education."

"In brief, it is the formulation of a new non-Aristotelian system of orientation which affects every branch of science and life. The separate issues involved are not entirely new; their methodological formulation as a system which is workable, teachable, and so elementary that it can be applied by children, is entirely new.”

I hope we may explore your ideas using a semantic map to traverse the terrain of language and diplomacy.

Source author: John D. Hipsley jhipsley@igc.org